Rational Versus Political Models of Organization

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Rational Versus Political Models of Organization
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Strategic Contingencies That Influence Horizontal
Power Among Departments
Dependency
Financial Resources
Centrality
Department Power
Nonsubstitutability
Coping with Uncertainty
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Determinants of Position Power
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Power and Political Tactics in Organizations
Tactics for Increasing the Power Base
Political Tactics for Using Power
1. Enter Areas of high uncertainty 2. Create
dependencies 3. Provide resources 4. Satisfy
strategic contingencies
1. Build coalitions 2. Expand networks 3.
Control decision premises 4. Enhance legitimacy
and expertise 5. Make preferences explicit, but
keep power implicit
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Model of Power and Influence

• Sources of Personal Power
• Expertise
• Reputation
• Personal characteristics
• Network connections
• Information

• Sources of Position Power
• Centrality
• Criticality
• Flexibility
• Visibility
• Relevance

POWER OF AN INDIVIDUAL
Selection of proper strategy to influence others
Assertive responses to inappropriate influence at
tempts by others
Increasing authority via upward influence
INFLUENCE OVER OTHERS
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Factors Influencing Political Behavior

• Individual factors
• Personality
• Organizational investment
• Perceived job alternatives
• Expectations of success

Favorable outcome ? Rewards ?
Averted punishments
Political behavior Low High

• Organizational factors
• Uncertainty
• Scarce resources
• Interdependence
• Low trust
• Ambiguity
• Unclear evaluation system
• Zero-sum reward practices
• Participative decision
• making
• High performance pressures
• Self-serving senior managers

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Influence Tactics

• Reason use of facts, data, or logic
• Values appeal to personal or general
  principles
• Emotion appeal to targets feelings
• Bargaining exchange of resources or favors
• Ingratiation humbleness, flattery or
  friendliness
• Coercion forceful demands or threats
• Sanctions use of rewards or punishment
• Coalition getting support from others
• Higher authority getting support from superiors

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Usage of Power Tactics From Most to Least Popular
Sanctions is omitted in the scale that measures
upward influence.
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Dirty PoliticsIn the Eyes of the Beholder

• Dirty Politics
• Kissing up
• Apple-polishing
• Coopting
• Coalition building
• Scheming
• Covering your rear
• Creating conflict
• Blaming others

• Effective Management
• Positive reinforcement
• Demonstrating loyalty
• Negotiating
• Facilitating teamwork
• Planning ahead
• Documenting
• Encouraging change
• Fixing responsibility

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Impression Management Tactics
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Comparisons Among Influence Strategies(Retributi
on)
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Examples of Influence Strategies(Retribution)
RETRIBUTION (COERCION AND INTIMIDATION) General
form If you dont do X, you will regret
it! Threat If you do not comply, I will
punish you. Social pressure Others in your
group have agreed whats your decision? Had
enough? I will stop nagging you if you
comply. Perceived scarcity and time
pressure If you dont act now, youll lose
this opportunity/cause problems for
others. Avoid causing pain to others If you
dont agree, other will be hurt/disadvantaged.
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Comparisons Among Influence Strategies(Reciproci
ty)
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Examples of Influence Strategies(Reciprocity)
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Comparisons Among Influence Strategies(Reason)
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Examples of Influence Strategies(Reason)
REASON (PERSUASION BASED ON FACTS, NEEDS, OR
PERSONAL VALUES) General form I want you to
do X, because its consistent with/good for/
necessary to . . . Evidence These
facts/experts opinions demonstrate the merits of
my position/request. Need This is what
I need will you help out? Goal
attainment Compliance will enable you you
reach a personally important
objective. Value congruence This action is
consistent with your commitment to
X. Ability This endeavor would be enhanced
if we could count on your ability/experience.
Loyalty Because we are friends/minorities,
will you do this? Altruism The group needs
your support, so do it for the good of us all.
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Ways to Create Power

• Develop and nurture a network of connections,
  especially with powerful allies
• Manage your public image
• Understand how power is distributed and executed
  within the organization
• Choose appropriate tactics of influence
• Build coalitions
• Know how to sell important issues

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Effective Organizational Politicians

• Understand how power is distributed and how
  politics operate within their organization
• Understand the priorities perspectives of
  different parties and adapt their behavior
  accordingly
• Consciously work on maintaining a positive image
• Use a wide range of power bases and influence
  tactics, and know when to use which ones
• Have a clear set of ethical standards to guide
  their political behavior

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Factors Contributing to a Sense of Powerlessness
Organization Level Factors

• Significant organizational changes that are not
  explained
• Control by rules
• High level of centralization
• Restricted access to networks and opportunities

Managerial Level Factors

• Authoritarian Leadership Style
• Lack of explanation of rationales for actions

Job Level Factors

• Lack of role clarity
• Lack of training
• Limited ability to participate in decisions

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People low in power may tend to

• Behave in more authoritarian ways.
• Place more restrictions on those working for
  them.
• Hold back talented employees (presumably because
  they are threatened).
• Be less well-liked by their employees and their
  bosses
• Use more coercive power
• Foster lower group morale

(Kanter, 1977)