Morphological categories

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Morphological categories
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Parts of speechclasses of words

• Word classes are sometimes referred to as
• "parts of speech",
• but this term should be avoided, because its
  misleading.
• "Speech" can be divided into many different
  'parts',
• and many of these are phrases, not words, so they
  cannot be word classes or even members of word
  classes.

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Classes of words

• The class of units used in the description of a
  language
• A group of words that have similar
  features/behaviour
• which can be replaced in the same slot in the
  sentence

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Classes of words

• They know a lot.
• know can be replaced by other verbs.
• They complain a lot.
• They eat a lot.
• They forget a lot.
• know cant be replaced by a noun regardless of
  how similar their meaning might be.
• It cant even be replaced by the noun knowledge,
  unless the sentence structure itself is changed.
• They knowledge a lot.
• They complaint a lot.
• They eater a lot.
• They forgetful a lot.

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Classes of words

• complain
• eat
• forget
• form a group (class) of words. They have similar
  features.

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Parts of speech

• English
• best defined syntactically
• a class of words that behave syntactically in a
  certain way
• a word in a certain position takes also
  characteristic inflectional suffixes
• the young are
• the family is/are

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Parts of speech

• Polish
• an example of an inflectionally-rich language
• defined morphologically, by use of certain
  suffixes, typical of the given class
• also by the role they play in the sentence

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Nouns Number

• English
• plural is built by of -s morpheme
• by alternation of the stem vowel
• foot/feet
• one suffix, with three allomorphs
• completely predictable on phonological grounds
• -s (huts)
• -iz (houses)
• -z (dogs)

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Nouns Number

• some nouns in plural have no plural marking
• sheep/sheep
• means/means

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Nouns Number

• Polish
• no alternation of the stem vowel
• as in English foot/feet
• wybór/wybory
• wybórPL gt wybóry gtwybory

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Nouns Number

• Polish
• a number of suffixes
• plural depends on the gender of a noun
• at least 5 gender classes
• and morphonological properties of the stem
• expressed in terms of the opposition
• hard - soft,
• velar - nonvelar
• 379 morphonologic classes

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Nouns Number

• Polish
• nominative plural of masculine nouns
• -y, -i, -e, -owie

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Nouns Number

• plural nouns are marked for plurality
• unlike sheep/sheep

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restrictions on plural

• Pluralia nouns (always plural) and
• singularia tantum nouns (always singular)
• appear both in Polish and English,
• two semantic equivalents belong to different
  number groups

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sing/pl
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number agreement

• Polish
• strict agreement between the number of the
  subject and the verb
• ja pisze
• ty piszesz
• on/ona/ono pisze, etc.
• Panstwo (oni) pisza
• Panstwo (wy) piszecie
• attitudinal use of agreement

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number agreement

• English
• agreement between the number of the subject and
  the verb
• however, with so called
• collective nouns
• attitudinal number is possible
• the family/government is/are
• Longman is/are

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English Birds

• The Lapwing returns home after
• Lapwing return home after
• (The) Lapwings return home after

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Gender

• English
• no grammatical marking
• possible lexical marking
• by use of a lexical marking/morphemes
• lion/lioness
• steward/stewardess
• fox/vixen
• usher/usherette

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Gender

• English
• possible gender reference
• by means of pronouns
• boy/man he
• girl/woman she
• baby he, she, it
• depending on the knowledge of the sex
• dog/cat he, she, it
• depending on the knowledge of the sex
• AND attitude of the speaker

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Gender

• English
• depending on the attitude of the speaker
• ship/car/computer
• it
• she
• he (for women!)

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Gender

• English
• generic gender is traditionally
• masculine
• The reader he
• fiercely opposed by feminists
• Plural generic pronoun
• The readers they
• Everyone they

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Gender in English

• natural and attitudinal

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gender

• Polish
• grammatical strong associations with case
  paradigms
• all nouns have to have gender
• even drzwi (one, not oni)
• for some nouns grammatical gender and sex
  corresponds
• chlopiec/mezczyzna dziewczyna/kobieta
• not always
• dziewcze, babsztyl
• poeta

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gender

• generic gender is firmly masculine
• czytelnik (m)

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gender

• double forms often exist where there is a
  difference in the sex
• pan/pani
• aktor/aktorka
• sprzedawca/sprzedawczyni
• wilk/wilczyca
• lis/lisica

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gender

• these are lexical morphemes, not infectional
• therefore this is not regular at all
• kawaler/kawalerka
• smieciarz/smieciarka
• marynarz/marynarka

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Gender Frequency Dictionary
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Polish Genders (IPI PAN)
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EnglishGenders (BNC)