Behavior enhances its chance of surviving and reproduction

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• Behavior enhances its chance of surviving and
  reproduction
• Natural selection - a mechanism for producing
  behavior suited to environment condition
  (adaptation)
• Or adaptation -- natural selection shape the
  behavior for state function
• Adaptation -- may include traits with known
  genetic cause, also inherited potential for
  learning

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a
b
c
Spatial memory
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• A change in the strength or probability of a
  behavior because of experience

• Only the right sort of experience counts, not
  something that happen to you
• e.g., losing a leg does not count
• Only the right sort of causes count
• e.g., not sensory adaptation (eye getting used to
  dark
• e.g., not fatique (muscle fatique)

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• Non - associative learning
• Habituation
• Sensitization
• Associative learning
• Classical conditioning
• Instrumental conditioning
• Social learning (Perceptual learning)
• Spatial learning
• Latent learning
• Taste learning
• Chaining
• Discrimination learning
• Conceptual learning

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• Animal are constantly learning about the stimuli
  in their environment
• Simplest form of learning, learning about single
  event
• 2 forms of non - associative learning
• habituation
• sensitization

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• A response decrement with repeated stimuli
• Primitive form of learning
• Adaptive value - save energy and attentional
  resources
• Animal learn to attend to stimuli that are
  important to them, and to ignore stimuli that are
  not
• Spontaneous recovery
• Sensory adaptation, fatique??

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• A response increase after a new or noxious
  stimulus
• e.g., loud noise -- startle animal, cause it move
  away from the sound
• Less stimulus - specific --gt change stimulus,
  lead to sensitization
• Desensitization - extreme reaction to specific
  stimulus can be sensitized --gt reaction diminish

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• Desensitization -
• 1st step, low level of stimulus --gt habituation
  would occur rapidly
• 2nd step, spontaneous recovery, then increase
  intensity of stimulus

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• 2 forms of associative learning
• Classical conditioning or Pavlovian conditioning
• Operant conditioning or Instrumental conditioning
• both - learning relation between events (E1, E2,
  E3, etc)

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• Involves learning about relations between 2 or
  more stimuli in the environment
• E1 a neutral stimuli
• E2 a reinforcing event

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???? Classical conditioning ??????????????????????
????????????? Neutral stimulus (????????????)
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• Oxytocin in response to the the jangling of
  milking equipment
• A pet animals fear reaction to the smell of
  veterinary hospital
• or to the sight of a person in a white coat

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• Animal learning involve learning in 2 relations
• Stimulus - stimulus relations
• Response - sequence relations
• usually mean, animal learns to associate its
  behavior with the consequence of the behavior
• E1 an action
• E2 consequence of E1

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???? Operant conditioning
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• Instrumental condition, there are 4 types of
  response consequence relation
• Positive reinforcement a reward food, social
  contact
• Positive punishment
• Negative reinforcement aversive stimuli (dog
  trainer)
• Negative punishment

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??????????????? (Reinforcement) ???????????
(Punishment)
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• Local enhancement
• Copy
• Social facilitation or Contagion

??? Rhesus (Macaca mulatta) ???????????
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??????????????????????????? (Sweet potatoes)
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?????? (Japanese snow monkey) ???? Imo
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• Differs from associative learning in 2 ways
• no survival event
• delay expression

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Insight learning
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• bait shyness
• learn to avoid food that it associates illness,
  particularly GI
• practical application - LiCl was injected into
  sheep, resulted in a definite aversion of live or
  dead lamb by the coyotes

Coyote ???????????????????????????????????
???????????????????????????????? ??????????? LiCl
????????????????????????
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• - the performance of a series of
  operant response in sequence
• many dog owners inadvertently chain obedience
  commands
• with the result that the dog sits, shakes, lies
  down, and roll over, when owner says, sits
• - highest type
  of learning

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Formation and strengthening of a learned task

• shaping - teaching an animal an operant task
• circus horse
• train animal to perform complicated and
  relatively unnatural tricks (reinforce with foods
  award and reinforced for each correct response at
  first)
• reinforcement schedule
• rewarded, after every response, after every 10,
  20, ... Response
• these schedule called fixed ratios (FR)
• higher FR, the faster response

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The frequency with which rewards are offered is
called the reinforcement schedule
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Physiological Basis of Learning

• Anatomy of Learning
• hippocampus - very important in human for
  consolidation (formation of long-term memory from
  short-term memory)
• lose of hippocampus tissue -- impair feline
  learning
• in dog, frontal lobectomy -- abolished retention
  of previously learned task
• lesion of the ventromedial hypothalamus --
  improve learning of a conditioned avoidance in cat

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Biochemical of Learning

• Learning appears to take place in 2 stages
• formation of short-term memory
• consolidation (formation of long-term memory
  trace)
• time required for formation of long-term memory
  (vary with species tested, the task learned)
• electroconvulsion shock or anesthesia -- inhibit
  short-term memory

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Biochemical of Learning

• Short-term memory is the result of following
  steps -
• the receptor act through transducing protein
• activate amplifier enzyme e.g., adenylate cyclase
• elevate the levels of intracellular messengers
  (cAMP)
• activate protein kinase
• modify target protein e.g., K-channel, modulating
  neuronal excitability and transmitter release...

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Biochemical of Learning

• Short-term memory is the result of following
  steps - (cont)
• cytoplasmic signal (such as cAMP) generated by
  transmitter-mediated process --gt inducer of gene
  expression (if signal persist long enough)
• induced proteins of these genes (basis of long -
  term memory)
• puromycin, inhibit protein synthesis, interfere
  long - term memory

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• REMS increase when an animal is learning a
  complex task
• Deprivation of sleep --gt impairs retention of
  memory

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• Which animal species is the smartest?
• Methods of measurement
• brain size and intelligence
• brain weight / body weight ratio
• ratio decrease in order -
• human 2,
• cat 1,
• mongrel dog 0.5,
• rat 0.3,
• goat 0.3,
• horse 0.1,
• and pig 0.05

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Problems of Cross-Species Comparision

• Learning Rates
• Classical Conditioning
• Delayed Response Method
• Multiple Choice Method
• Avoidance-Response Method
• Maze Learning

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Learning Rates

• Measured by comparing learning rates of various
  species on the same task
• the task must be physically possible for all
  species tested

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Classical Conditioning

• Produce leg flexion in response to the condition
  stimuli, the sound
• pig were the most easily conditioned of the farm
  animals followed by goats, sheep and rabbits

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Maze learning
A ???? Hebb-William maze ?????????????????????????
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?????????? Opossums ??????????????????????
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Learning in Domestic Animal

• Pigs
• Liddel et al., 1934 pigs were easier to
  classically condition than small ruminant or
  rabbits
• sex, breed and age difference
• Durocs learn avoidance more quickly than
  Hampshires
• Yorkshires perform better in a T-maze than Poland
  Chinas (X breed)

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Learning in Domestic Animal

• Pigs (cont)
• sex, breed and age difference
• female perform better than male
• operant condition
• visual discrimination
• pigs -- have color vision similar or slightly
  superior than human
• pig can discriminate between wavelength of light
  differing by only 25 mm

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Learning in Domestic Animal

• Dogs
• Housebreaking
• 1st task, all pet must learn -- voluntary control
  of the anal and urinary sphincters
• immediately after meal, gastrocolic reflex
  increase motility of the large colon and rectum
• result in filling the rectum --gt stimulate
  relaxation of the smooth muscle of the external
  sphincters

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Learning in Domestic Animal

• Dogs (cont)
• Housebreaking
• if dog is taken outside after meal, the condition
  stimulus of being put outside will soon replace
  the US of reflex
• operant condition -- useful in teaching voluntary
  control of urination

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Paper training
????????????????????????????? ????????????????????
?????????? (Paper training) ??????????????????????
??????????
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Learning in Domestic Animal

• Cattle
• Operant conditioning
• trained cow to come in to be milked when
  automobile horn connected to a timer
• trained cattle to come to a feeding trough when
  auditory stimulus was delivered to cattle from
  timer-activated tape record

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Learning in Domestic Animal

• Cattle (cont)
• Conditioned avoidance
• teach cattle to defecate in gutter behind their
  stanchions rather on the stall floor (cattle
  defecate 17 time / day, average 60-80 pounds)
• Effect of Age
• ability to remember the location of feeder
  (heifer learned more quickly than older)

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Learning in Domestic Animal

• Sheep and Goat
• Thermoregulation
• sheep learned to active a heat lamb by sticking
  their muzzle through a slit to break a
  photoelectric bream

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Learning in Domestic Animal

• Horses
• Operant Conditioning
• training -- based on negative reinforcement
• applying an aversive stimulus until the horse
  perform the response
• try to substitute condition stimulus voice
  command, or subtle pressure from the riders leg,
  for unconditioned stimuli painful flick of a
  whip

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Operant Conditioning
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Learning in Domestic Animal

• Horses (cont)
• neck reining can replace direct reining
• Observational learning in horse
• horse vice, cribbing, are believed to be learned
  by observation

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Learning in Domestic Animal

• Cats
• discrimination
• reward
• unlike dogs, cat will not usually perform in
  order to be reunited with the experimenter
• they perform for food
• imitation learning by observation

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Memory

• By definition learning implies some form of
  retention of experience
• memory refers to the capacity of an organism to
  form lasting connections based on past experience

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Theories of Memory

• The Dynamic hypothesis

Experience, input of sensory information set up
persistent electrical activity in CNS, called
reverberating circuits
Continuously active neurons
if neural processes cease
Forgetting occur, the bit of information is lost
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Theories of Memory

• Other hypothesis

Learning and Sensory input
Produce permanent changes in biochemical
processes or structure within cells, thus,
memory involve structure changes
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Types of Memory
1. Short - term memory 2. Long - term memory

• Short - term memory
• brief period immediately after learning
• recall depends on and reflect the current pattern
  facility in neural circuit, that are processing
  experience

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Types of Memory

• Long - term memory
• generally believed to be created by a combination
  of anatomical change and chemical change

Learning experience, intense and prolong
Affect proliferation and synaptic contact of axon
terminal
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Memory Formation

• Short - term memory -- labile phase
• Long - term memory -- permanent phase
• immediate memory -- experience is stored in short
  - term memory, possible through neural activity
  alone
• during labile phase various types of interference

Concussion Sudden blow to head
Loss of information
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Memory Formation

• After memory trace -- physical manifestation of
  learning or sensory input within the CNS
• long - term memory by processes that are
  apparently more chemical and structural in change
  in nature, the memory trace become relatively
  permanent
• consolidation conversion of short - term
  memories into more permanent form, hippocampus

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Memory Formation

• Factors that can interfere with consolidation
• electroconvulsive shock
• anesthesia
• hypoxia
• hyperthermia
• hypercapnia
• psychologic drugs
• behavioral plasticity