DANZIGER

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• DANZIGER
• CHAPTER TWO
• Political Beliefs

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This chapter attempts to a- develop a
classification about individuals orientations
toward the political world. () (Political
orientation refers to political belief held by
individuals. (Political behavior or
Micropolitics) b- characterize the dominant
forms of political behavior, and some fundamental
systems of beliefs (political ideologies or
Normative political knowledge)
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• Types of Political Beliefs
• 1- Cognitive 2- Affective 3- Evaluative
• Cognitive orientations
• -They are determined by our own factual
• knowledge about politics.
• -They include what are considered as
• political facts by the individual.
• -Such facts might be correct or totally wrong.

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• This knowledge might include such facts as
• the names of political leaders, the policies
• supported by political parties, events in
• political history, the features of constitutions
• and so on.
• Switzerland is a member of the EU.
• British constitution is unwritten.
• Nigerian regions have special representation in
  the national assembly.

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• Japan is an industrialized state.
• American president is elected by people.
• Saudi Arabia is ruled by a monarch.
• Italy has usually been ruled by coalition
  governments.

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• 2- Affective Orientation
• It includes any feelings or emotions held by
• a person about a political phenomenon, for
• example
• What do you feel when you see/hear that
• a group of people demonstrate against your
  country? (angry)
• the political party you support in the
• elections is voted out of office? (desperate)

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• 3- Evaluative Orientation
• - It refers to the individual interpretation of
• facts through using knowledge and feelings
• about them.
• - Your opinion about a political issue, such
• as the states policy on privatization, can be
• grounded in many different kinds of
• cognitive and affective orientations that are
• combined into an evaluation.

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• Collecting information about political
  orientations
• Public opinion polls
• - We can collect useful information about what
  people think about a particular issue.
• - This information obtained through a public
  opinion poll is stronger than the information
  obtained through a discussion with a few friends.

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Belief System Among Ordinary People There are
important differences between the elite and the
ordinary people in the nature and structure of
their belief system. Elements of ordinary people
belief system Political issues have low
importance in relation to other concerns in
peoples life. Most people do not give
political issues first priority.
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• People tend to focus attention on concrete
  (real) issues rather than on abstract political
  concepts. (The salary you receive is more
  important than the type of ownership of the
  place you work at.)
• Interest and knowledge are greater on
• short-term issue than on longer-term ones.
• Fundamental beliefs are relatively stable
• But short-term political opinions may
• change.

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The individual can hold contradictory
positions. (for example a person might support
the right to form political parties but reject
the right of communists to have their own
party). The content of beliefs is often
incorrect. (Some people do not know who elects
the president in their country)
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Belief System Among Elites (Political elite
Those who have relatively high levels of interest
and involvement in politics.) Elite belief
systems are based on high levels of abstraction,
accuracy, complexity, stability, and breadth
(comprehensiveness). Despite the emphasis on
consistency among beliefs, individuals in the
elite can support core values that are in
conflict.
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• The belief systems of the elite are important
  because elites
• have a major role in politics and
• can influence the belief system of common people.
• Political Culture refers to common political
  orientations or beliefs that characterize a large
  group of individuals.

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• Survey research
• We can understand the nature of political culture
  by the use of survey research.
• This is a more systematic and scientifically
  acceptable method.
• - A carefully selected sample of the population
  is asked a series of questions to collect
  information about individual political beliefs
  and actions.

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• Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba found
• out that there is a Civic Culture in liberal
• democracies which consists of three sub-
• cultures
• a- Parochial political culture People know
  almost nothing about political system. They are
  excluded/alienated from political system.
• b- Subject political culture People are affected
  by political system but they can not affect
  political system.

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c- Participant political culture -People affect
and be affected by the political system. They
participate in decision making. Most survey
research on political culture help to improve our
understanding of political orientations of
citizens in democratic societies.
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- Ron Inglehart points out that there is a
difference in political culture between older
adults and younger adults. - He uses two
concepts to explain such differences materialism
(interest oriented beliefs) and post-materialism
(value oriented beliefs). - Older adults
emphasize materialist values for strong defense,
order maintenance and economic growth
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• - many young adults on the other hand
• stress postmaterialist values including
• - a more satisfying and safe environment,
• freedom of expression, and
• more personal power in social and political life.

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Normative Political Theory How society should
be oganized? Should an individual resist a
governmental policy? Should questions are
classified within the domain of normative
knowledge claims. There are various perspectives
for thinking about tghe core questions of
normative political theory..
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• Plato, Aristotle, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Karl
  Marx, and ohn Stuart Mill are anmong the many
  important thinkers who have offered profound,
  provocative, and influential ideas about these
  bacic normative questions.
• Thomas Hobbes
• A powerful state should be established and
  obeyed.
• State of nature and social contract.

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Political Ideology refers to a comprehensive set
of beliefs about political world. Ideologies can
include a description of political reality and an
explanation about why something occurs as it does
but they are primarily a normative expression of
what ought to be. A normative expression
attempts to evaluate a situation. It is an answer
to a what ought to be question.
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• Each major ideology has its own internal logic.
  (consistency)
• Each major ideology is based on assumptions and
  value judgments about the following issues
• ? The human nature
• ? The relationship between the individual and
  society
• ? Equality among individuals.

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1) Human nature The nature versus nurture
(natural needs versus experience) There are two
different perspectives on human nature A
Individual action and behavior derives from
natural processes. B Individual behavior is
learned.
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2) Individual and Society What is the proper
relationship between society and individual? a)
One view emphasizes the importance of individual
freedom of action as the highest value. - This
approach says that the individual freedom is the
most important value.
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• b) But another view stresses that the collective
  good should be the highest value.
• - the individual freedom must be restricted to
  achieve that collective good.

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3) Equality a) Legal equality equality before
law (equality of opportunity and equal political
rights) b) Material equality equality of
conditions (political equality economic
equality) c) Natural inequality people and
situations are naturally unequal. It is neither
possible nor desirable to establish any kind of
equality.
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• IDEOLOGIES
• WWW.EMU.EDU.TR/YVURAL
• Conservatism
• Classical Liberalism
• Socialism
• Fascism

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CONSERVATISM - It attempts to protect traditional
values and social hierarchy. (a system in
which people are arranged according to
their importance) - The core element of
conservatism is to conserve the many valued
elements of the system that already exists. -
Stability, Tradition, Loyalty to God and Country.
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The individual -individuals are naturally
unequal in intelligence, in skills and in
status. - Some individuals and groups are
superior to others. - Superior groups should be
in power.
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• Individual and Society
• inequalities are natural. Society is composed of
  many different groups which are unequal in power,
  status and material possessions.
• - Members of a society work cooperatively to
  maintain the social order. (theory of organic
  society)

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- no majority has the right to limit the rights
of others. This means that there should be no
constraints on the rights of superior groups. -
superior groups (or nobility) have obligations
and responsibility to protect the weak from ills
and troubles.
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- tradition is more important than reason. -
traditions are the most valuable sources for
guiding society since they support stability and
moderate change. Equality - it is foolish and
even dangerous to seek equality.
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• - This means that forced equality is unwise
  because it disrupts the natural hierarchy among
  groups and causes social conflict and unnatural
  change.
• - Edmund Burke (1729-1797), was the most
  effective spokesperson for conservatism.

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• Classical Liberalism
• - individual freedom is the highest value
• - the role of government should be quite limited.
• classical liberalism emerged as a reaction to
  European feudal order (which was hierarchical and
  static).

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The individual - natural rights
(life,liberty,property) are the highest values -
each person is a rational and responsible
individual who is the best judge to know what is
in his/her self interests. (rationality) -
individual ought to be allowed to exercise
freedom of action.
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Individual and Society - social order should
not limit the individual. - government should
not interfere in the economy. - no principle
justifies the limitation of individual
freedom. - A Laissez faire economy guided by
enlightened self interest is a necessity.
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- No need to regulation in economy by the state.
Because there is an invisible hand of the
market. - government authority should rest on
the consent of people. - The power of government
should be limited to protect personal liberty.
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• Equality
• - equality before law (equality of opportunity)
• - government should not attempt to create
  material equality because government action can
  undermine individual initiative and independence.

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• Socialism
• It is an ideology that aims to provide equal
  conditions of life for everyone.
• The Individual
• - Individuals are not naturally selfish and
  aggressive.
• -Individuals are social and caring (helpful) by
  nature.
• - Environment determines individuals behavior.

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Individual and Society - the most important value
is the common good of society. - The
government must have a crucial role in providing
good material living conditions and security for
people. - The government must take extensive
or important roles in such areas as education,
health care, employment, and shelter (protection)
against economic uncertainty.
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Equality - Both hierarchical world of
conservatism and self-serving (individualistic)
world of classical liberalism create huge
inequalities in material conditions, status and
power. -These inequalities cause unhappiness,
deep alienation and deep conflicts in the
society.
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• - the power and policies of the state shall be
  used to increase the material equality as well as
  the social and political equality of all
  citizens.

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• Such equality will make people happy citizens who
  willingly contribute to the common good.
• Variations of Socialism
• Marxist-Leninist Socialism
• Three assumptions in creating a good society
  based on equality and social justice.

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• First, the old socio-economic order will resist
  change by every means available. So change will
  require violent overthrow of the old order.
• Second, the socialist government should be
  powerful in order to perform its functions. The
  most important task of government includes the
  restructuring of economic system with public
  ownership of the major resources.

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• Third, a small leadership group (the communist
  party) whose members are loyal to socialist
  ideals must be in power.
• When relative equality is achieved, both the
  small leadership group and the powerful
  government can be eliminated. They will be
  replaced by a decentralized, citizen-run politics
  and efficient administration.
• from each according to his/her ability to each
  according to his/her needs.

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2- Democratic Socialism Egalitarianism is
important for this variant of socialism. A
government that comes to power and rules by
democratic means, not by violence, can establish
socialism. This government takes its authority
from the voluntary consent of people by election.
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Gradual change towards socialism with the
protection of individual freedoms. The
government might own some of the major economic
resources and it strongly regulates much of the
economic system. But the government does not
attempt to plan and control all aspects of
economic system.
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• Fascism
• Its variant is called Nazism in Germany
• This ideology places fundamental importance on
  the unity and harmony of government and society.
• Fascism is
• ultra-nationalist
• - Anti socialist, because it opposes the
  egalitarian ethic.
• Anti-democratic, because it opposes multi-party
  politics.
• Skinheads, Ku Klux Klan (USA), National Front in
  France, Freedom Party in Austria.

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OTHER POLITICAL isms Anarchism a political
ideology based on a moral-political ideal of
society without organized government, hierarchy
and formal organizations. Authoritarianism A
system of government in which the political
rights and interests of individuals are
subordinated, usually by coercion, to the
interests of the state. Pasifism The belief
that the highest political and social value is
peace and the absence of violence.
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Capitalism An economic system dominated by
market economy in which economic actors are
generally free from state contraints. Collectivis
m A doctrine that the individuals actions
should benefit some kind of collective
organization such as the state, a tribe or the
like rather than the individual
herself. Corporatism A political economy in
which there is extensive economic cooperation
between an activist state and a few groups that
represent such major economic actors as large
industry, organised labor, and farmers.
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Environmentalism The ideal that supports the
planned management of natural resources or of
total environment of a particulqar ecosystem in
order to prevent exploitation, pollution,
destruction or deplition of valuable natural
resources. Feminism A diverse social movement
promoting equal rights and opportunities for
women and men in their personal lives, economic
activities and politics. Libertarianism an
extreme version of liberalism which advocate the
right of the individuals to act freely and
unconstrained by the state as long as they do
bnot harm other people.