Writing for Scientists

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Writing for Scientists Engineers Robert Blake

• Effective Learning Programme
• Student Learning Development Centre

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Writing for Scientists Outline

• What are the expectations of a scientific
  technical audience?
• What are the main features of scientific
  technical style?
• How are scientific technical reports
  structured?
• When editing what stages can we follow to produce
  a well organised polished report?

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Writing for Scientific Readerships

• Please read these 3 passages that report on
  scientific topics. (handout)
• What is the intended audience of each one?
• Which passages are aimed at a
  scientific/technical university audience?
• After looking at the examples, can you say
  what the expectations of the university audience
  are?

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Writing for Scientific Readerships

• Precise
• Explicit Explanatory
• Analytical (critical?)
• Concise
• Objective/Impartial
• Responsible claims carefully made supported
  use of sources acknowledged
• Follows established conventions
• Reader friendly (though for specialist audience)
• Accessible structure (see organisation?)

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Writing in a Scientific Style?

• Are any of the passages written in a scientific
  rather than popular style ?
• What features distinguish the passages written
  in a scientific/technical style from any which
  are written in a more popular style?

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Scientific Style Organisation

• Structured for easy access to information
  headings sub-headings (in longer reports
  contents, lists of figures,)
• Numbering system for organising information
  distinguishing headings subheadings
• Follows patterns expected in field (e.g. report
  structure IMRaD)
• Structured for ease of navigation flow
  signposting

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Scientific Style Organisation

• Importance of introductions to sections as well
  as beginning of work, conclusions transitions
• Hierarchies to introduce organise ideas.
• Cross referencing between sections
• Paragraphs are well structured beginning with
  topic sentences
• In sentences, topic is clear near beginning of
  sentence

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Style Vocabulary

• Style
• Formal objective
• No 'I' or 'You' no contracted forms cant
• Avoidance of direct questions standard
  negatives
• No colloquial English lots, stuff, things
• Vocabulary
• Formal verbs chosen e.g. investigated (from
  Latin/ Greek, rather than look into- (not 2 part
  verbs)
• Precise often abstract vocabulary

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A Few Grammar Points

• Passive e.g. Tests were made frequently used
  dont overuse
• Longer sentences often used with clauses dont
  make them too long or complex.
• Make claims carefully using the modals can,
  may, might, etc This compound may cause an
  increased incidence of
• Noun groups are often used to convey information
  concisely (nominalisation) e.g.
• Its and its Dont use its, which is a spoken
  contraction of it is/it has its is a
  possessive adjective

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Writing for Scientists Figures

• Graphical information i.e. tables figures can
  be used to present information clearly
  economically
• Make sure this information is clearly presented,
  with clear self-explanatory figure legends,
  well labelled axes
• Provide a data commentary to refer to
  highlight the information conveyed by the tables
  figures.
• Typical order location of figure, key idea of
  figure, key trends.

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A basic data commentary analysed

• LOCATION OF RESULTS Figure 7.2 displays the
  mean percentile scores on the four subtests for
  non-immersion and immersion French students.
  MOST IMPORTANT FINDINGS Students in the
  French immersion programs performed significantly
  better than their non-immersion peers on all four
  Modern language Association tests by more than
  two to one in terms of scores attained on each of
  the subtests. For example in the listening
  subtest, immersion students scored at the 80th
  percentile, while non-immersion students scored
  at the 14th percentile.
  
• COMMENTS Clearly, the findings indicate that
  the amount of exposure to a foreign language has
  a positive effect on student performance. It
  appears that the intensity of immersion program
  (an average of 75 of total instruction per week
  in French compared to approximately 10 for
  non-immersion) and the use of the foreign
  language to study basic subjects results in
  substantial differences in performances in all
  four skill area of the MLA test.
• NB Divided into 3 paragraphs headings added
  for purposes of analysis only normally a single
  paragraph or 2 at the most
• Source Weissburg and Buker 1990

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Report Structure IMRaD

• IMRaD C describes the basic structure of a
  report. Remember this will vary according to
  your department.
• Introduction
• Methods
• Results
• And
• Discussion
• Conclusion
• Not all types of reports have conclusions e.g.
  lab reports

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Other Parts of Longer Reports

• Abstract
• Contents list
• List of Figures
• __________________________________________
• Introduction
• Methods
• Results
• Discussion
• Conclusions, suggestions for further work
  etc__________________________________________
• References
• Acknowledgements
• Appendices

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Reports Writing the Introduction

• Depending on your department, the purpose
  length of the report, the introduction may carry
  out the following roles
• Gives some background to the study sets the
  scene for the report.
• Explains connections with any previous work
  gap
• Explains background theory longer reports?
• Explains your aims/hypotheses clearly
• Explains briefly what you will do why the
  study is being carried out
• Explains briefly how the report is structured
  signposting
• NB write the introduction after you finish the
  report

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Reports Writing the Methods

• Describe the methods you used to address the
  aims/hypotheses outlined in the introduction.
• Depending on your study
• The design of the study/experiment/the
  development of a mathematical model/the
  construction or choice of apparatus
• The procedure you followed this should allow
  another scientist to replicate your
  experiment,design

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Reports Writing the Results

• Presents the results data from the experiment
  or model
• Do not just include figures and tables, ensure
  that your text provides
• a commentary guiding the reader through the
  figures tables location summary of purpose
  in report e.g. Figure 3.2 shows how the incidence
  of malaria increases when statement
  highlighting key trends
• Check that figures are clearly presented see
  slide 10
• Remember that the reader will look at the
  figures tables only if directed to do so in the
  text.

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Reports Writing the Discussion

• Here you analyse your results discuss the main
  findings of your experiment.
• Keep your project aims/hypotheses in mind- dont
  deviate from these.
• If there are any limitations of your study,
  state them.
• Broaden the scope of your discussion to compare
  your findings with those of earlier work i.e.
  link back to the earlier section

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Reports Writing the Conclusions

• Usually short succinct
• State what you major conclusions are, referring
  back to your original aims/hypotheses
• Discuss what advances you have made
• In some types of report, make suggestions for
  the future
• If the reader goes further than the abstract,
  this is likely to be 2nd section that is read

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Reports Writing the abstract

• Although the abstract is first part of the
  report you read, you should write it last, after
  writing the introduction.
• Needs to stand alone i.e. be complete in
  itself,
• Allows the reader to gain a v. brief but
  complete overview of your entire report from aims
  to conclusions
• Does not act as an introduction
• Typically 100-200 words one paragraph
• Highly succinct but must be cohesive- i.e.
  flow well
• Most important section along with conclusions

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Writing Editing Your Report

• Identifying the task
• Brainstorming ideas
• Sorting out ideas from brainstorming
• Reading ongoing to fill gaps identified in 1
  2 using the SQ3R technique
• Writing a first draft for oneself
• Reading with a critical friend. Editing
• Producing second or final draft

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Writing Editing Your Report-identifying the task

• This may involve
• identifying analysing number of parts of
  question question words, topic,
  focus and angle.
• overlooking parts of questions is not
  uncommon!
• Use coloured pens or highlighters
• See Andy Gilletts UEFAP site. Click on questions
  
• http//www.uefap.co.uk/writing/writfram.htm

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Writing Editing Your Report Writing the first
draft for yourself

• Many writers find it very difficult to write a
  perfect draft straight off. Alternative
  strategies are
• Write the 1st draft for yourself to work out what
  you think then revise it for other readers
• You can sort out the logic, sentence structure,
  style grammar as when you write the final draft
• If you find it difficult to leave problematic
  bits of writing unidentified, try highlighting
  them with highlighter for attention later

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Writing Editing Your Report Writing the first
draft for yourself

• Where do you start writing the introduction or
  elsewhere?
• Reports are rarely written in linear order. The
  order for writing the final sections may be
  Conclusions, Introductions finally the
  abstract. These are the sections most likely to
  be read by readers
• For every 1000 readers who see your title, 100
  may read the abstract, perhaps 10 will read some
  of the main report conclusions, some results
  etc, at most 1 may follow all the way through
• A middle section such as the methods/ system
  design may be a good starting point
• Writing notes for the introduction, some
  background theory or a review of previous studies
  may help you to clarify the focus of your report.

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Editing Your Report with a Critical Friend

• Murphy's Law of Errata Detection "The very first
  person to see your mistake is always the last
  person you want to know about it.
• Reading your own work, you dont always spot
  errors as you may read your draft in the way you
  want it to sound
• Work with a critical friend- someone who gives
  honest advice- perhaps outside your field
• As soon as you sit in front of the paper with
  your critical friend, your perspective may change
  from that of the writer to a potential reader of
  the paper
• Dont over edit the 1st part you write
• Try using the editing questions provided by the
  Purdue Uni. Online Writing Lab- next slide

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Thesis or focus Does the paper have a central
thesis? Can you, if asked, offer a one-sentence
explanation or summary of what the paper is
about? Ask someone to read the first paragraph or
two and tell you what he or she thinks the paper
will discuss. Audience and purpose Do you have
an appropriate audience in mind? Can you describe
them? Do you have a clear purpose for the paper?
What is it intended to do or accomplish? Why
would someone want to read this paper? Does the
purpose match the assignment? Organization Does
the paper progress in an organized, logical
way? Go through the paper and jot down notes on
the topics of the various paragraphs. Look at
this list and see if you can think of a better
organization. Make a brief outline. Does the
organization make sense? Should any part be moved
to another part? Ask someone to read the paper.
At the end of each paragraph, ask the person to
forecast where the paper is headed. If the paper
goes in a direction other than the one forecasted
by the reader, is there a good reason, or do you
need to rewrite something there? Purdues editing
checklist is at http//owl.english.purdue.edu/hand
outs/general/gl_hocloc.html
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Writing the second draft for others to read

• Youve now understood the topic, checked the
  structure technical narrative with a critical
  friend, and made editing comments. So youre
  ready to write the final draft
• When writing this version, try to address a
  range of potential readers.
  
  Imagine presenting the paper a
  panel of lecturers in your dept-not just your
  lecturer.
  
• What do you need to say, in what order, and how?
  
• What can be omitted, reordered or rephrased?
• Finally 1) check that you have acknowledged all
  sources make a final check for typos, lapses in
  style expression, logical development.
• 2) Double check youve fulfilled the task
  specification

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Communicating with other scientists Task

• Please read the two passages about the removal of
  adrenal glands in mice (handout) answer the
  questions

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Communicating with other scientists

• In the first experiment of the series using mice
  it was discovered that the total removal of the
  adrenal glands effects reduction of
  aggressiveness and that aggressiveness in
  adrenalectomized mice is restorable to the level
  of intact mice by treatment with corticosterone.
  These results point to the indispensability of
  the adrenals for the full expression of
  aggression. Nevertheless, since adrenalectomy is
  followed by an increase of adrenocorticotrophic
  hormone (ACTH), and since ACTH has been reported
  Brain 1972), to decrease the aggressiveness of
  intact mice, it is possible that the effects of
  adrenalectomy on aggressiveness are a function of
  the concurrent increased levels of ACTH. However
  high levels of ACTH, in addition to causing
  increases in glucocorticoids (which possibly
  accounts for the depression of aggression in
  intact mice by ACTH), also result in decreased
  androgen levels. In view of the fact that animals
  with low androgen levels are characterised by
  decreased aggressiveness the possibility exists
  that adrenalectomy, rather than affecting
  aggression directly, has the effect of reducing
  aggressiveness by producing an ACTH- mediated
  condition of decreased androgen levels.

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Communicating with other scientists

• The first experiment in our series with mice
  showed that total removal of the adrenal glands
  reduces aggressiveness . Moreover, when treated
  with corticosterone, mice that had their
  adrenals taken out became as aggressive as intact
  animals again. These findings suggest that
  adrenals are necessary for animals to show full
  aggressiveness.
• But the removal of adrenals raises the levels of
  adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) and Brain
  1972 found that ACTH lowers the aggressiveness of
  intact mice. Thus the reduction of aggressiveness
  after this operation might be due to the higher
  levels of ACTH which accompany it.
• However, high levels of ACTH have two effects.
  First, the levels of glucocorticoids rise,
  which might account for Brians results. Second
  the levels of androgen fall. Since animals with
  low levels of androgen are less aggressive, it is
  possible that removal of the adrenals reduces
  aggressiveness only indirectly by raising the
  levels of ACTH it causes androgen levels to drop.

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Further reading on Writing for Scientists If in
library mostly AKP section of library

• Alley, M. 1997, The Craft of Scientific
  Writing, 3rd Ed., Springer.
• Alley, M, 2000, The Craft of Scientific Editing,
  3rd Ed. Springer.
• Barras, R. 2002, Scientists Must Write A
  Guide To Better Writing For Scientists and
  Engineers, Chapman and Hall
• Hay, I. 2002, Communicating in Geography and the
  Environmental Sciences, OUP
• Turk C. and Kirkman, J. 1988 Effective Writing
  Improving Scientific, Technical and Business
  Communication
• Northedge et al. 1997 The Sciences Good Study
  Guide Open University
• Pechenik, J. and Lamb, B. 1994 How to Write
  about Biology. Prentice Hall
• Swales, J and Feak, C 1994 Academic Writing for
  Graduate Students A course for non-native
  speakers of English University of Michigan
• Weissburg, R. and Buker, S. 1990 Writing Up
  Research Experimental Research Report Writing
  Prentice Hall Regents