Title: Lecture 8b: Introduction to California Geology
1Lecture 8b Introduction to California Geology
- In the field one makes small-scale observations
of many geological processes. It takes years to
assemble such observation into large-scale
regional processes, but this lecture sets the
stage for understanding the importance of
small-scale features retroactively by introducing
the big picture. - Questions
- How can we use the framework of plate tectonics
to make a logical narrative of the geological
history of a particular continental margin,
California? - How do the features one sees in the field
(mountains, valleys, faults, volcanoes, glacial
deposits) relate to the stuff we have been
discussing in lecture? - Tools
- Your eyes
- Maps
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2Owens Valley
Long Valley
Sierra Nevada
Mojave Desert
You are Here
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3Long Valley
Owens Valley
You are Here
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4Continental Margin settings
- There are four recognized types of
ocean-continent margin. California has been all
four, at various times in the past billion years. - Atlantic-type a passive margin, not a plate
boundary - Andean-type subduction close to shore, arc
volcanoes built on continental basement - Japanese-type subduction offshore, with a
marginal sea between the arc and the mainland - Californian-type transform fault, no subduction,
no spreading
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5Synoptic history of Californian margin
- Hence the major events affecting the tectonic
evolution of California are - A rifting event in the latest Pre-Cambrian
- Two orogenies, the Antler (Devonian) and the
Sonoma (Permian-Triassic) collisions of offshore
arcs with North America
- Initiation of continental margin subduction with
trench in todays western Sierra foothills
(Triassic-Jurassic) - Interruption of subduction by Late Jurassic
Nevadan orogeny (accretion of another island arc
terrane), initiation of mature Andean
trench-gap-arc system at Franciscan-Great
Valley-Sierra location - Cenozoic subduction of Pacific-Farallon ridge
leading to growing no-slab zone, Laramide orogeny
in Rocky Mountains, then initiation of
basin-and-range extension and San Andreas
transform.
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6Before 700 Ma Not a Margin
- In the Proterozoic, the west coast of North
America was attached to some other continent
(East Antarctica?), and had not previously been a
continental margin since at least 2 Ga.
Beginning around 800 Ma, this other continent
rifted away along an irregular margin that
truncated the old age provinces and established a
stepped western boundary of the continent.
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7700-400 Ma Atlantic-type Passive Margin
- Through mid-Devonian time, this remained a stable
passive continental margin (Atlantic type) and
accumulated a passive margin sequence
(miogeoclinal belt) of clastic and carbonate
sediments up to several km thick. - The miogeocline is the part of this system on the
continental crust, inboard of the continental
slope. - It tends to be preserved when the margin is
activated and rocks further out, on oceanic
crust, are subducted and lost. - These Proterozoic-Paleozoic sediments still make
up much of the exposed rock in the Western U.S.
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8400-250 Ma Japanese-type Offshore subduction
- The ocean offshore widened and aged until it
became unstable to subduction, which initiated
sometime in the early Paleozoic under an offshore
arc, with a steadily closing marginal sea
attached to the North American plate.
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9400-250 Ma Japanese-type Offshore subduction
- In the late Devonian, this offshore arc ran up
against the North American margin in the Antler
orogeny
The arc terrane ended up accreted to the
continent, overlying the miogeocline across the
Roberts Mountain Thrust Fault
The orogeny ends when the arc terrane is
transferred to the North American plate and a new
subduction boundary is initiated offshore.
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10400-250 Ma Japanese-type Offshore subduction
- After a couple of arc-polarity reversals, the
same thing happened again, more or less, in the
Early Triassic Sonoma orogeny, bringing a new
sequence of oceanic rocks on top of the
miogeocline and the Antler rocks.
The island arc so accreted forms the basement for
the western Sierra Nevada batholith
A modern example of arc-polarity reversal can be
seen in the New Ireland-New Britain system in the
Western Pacific, resulting from the arrival of
the Ontong-Java plateau at the trench.
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11250-50 Ma Andean-type subduction
- After Triassic time, the polarity of subduction
remained normal i.e., the North American
continent was the upper plate. - Thus a recognizable Andean-type continental
margin arc formed, built on basement of
Pre-Cambrian North America, Paleozoic
miogeocline, and the arc terranes accreted in the
Antler and Sonoma events. - The dip angle of the slab was initially steep,
with the arc rather close to the trench and
minimal deformation deep in the continental
interior
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12250-50 Ma Andean-type subduction
- In the late Jurassic, another island arc terrane,
riding on the subducting Farallon Plate, collided
with the North American continent in the Nevadan
orogeny. - This time the system responded by stepping
subduction out beyond the new terrane to
establish the subduction system that lasted
through the Cretaceous and generated the still
clearly recognizable sequences of Franciscan
trench, Great Valley forearc, and Sierran arc - The Sierra Nevada batholith is the deep
assemblage of plutonic rocks that formed under
the arc volcanoes.
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13250-50 Ma Andean-type subduction
- A relatively low angle slab became more flat with
time, causing a wide arc that propagated inland,
farther from the trench (remember the volcanic
front is always 100 km above the Benioff zone,
so a flatter slab causes more inland volcanism),
and caused extensive compressional deformation in
the continental interior.
- Caltech geologists and geochemists (notably
Silver and Taylor) have done much work to
document the age progression of magmatic activity
in the Sierra Nevada and Peninsular Ranges
batholiths and the progressive incorporation of
more continental source materials (higher ?18O,
87Sr/86Sr, K2O, less mafic).
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1450 Ma End of subduction
- In the Cenozoic, the slab became completely
horizontal, probably due to progressive decrease
in age of the subducting Farallon Plate as the
ridge approached the trench. Results include end
of calc-alkaline volcanism, major compressive
orogeny far inland (Laramide orogeny of the Rocky
Mountains) and emplacement of Pelona and related
schists under Southern California
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1550 Ma End of subduction
- The same process can be seen today in Chile,
where a relatively flat region of the slab
defined by depth to the seismic Benioff zone
correlates with a gap between the Central and
Southern Volcanic Zones of the Andes and
extensive deformation and K-rich volcanism far
inland in Argentina.
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16lt50 Ma Growth of San Andreas Transform Fault
- The flat-slab event was probably related to
decreasing age and increasing buoyancy of the
slab as the Pacific-Farallon ridge approached the
continent - This naturally leads to the next tectonic
arrangement, as subduction of the
Pacific-Farallon ridge leads to transform motion
between Pacific and N. American plates between
the Mendocino and Rivera triple junctions.
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17Modern Californian Margin
- Subduction continues north of Cape Mendocino (the
Cascade margin) and south of the Rivera triple
junction (Mexican Volcanic Belt). - In between, some combination of drag from the
Pacific plate, back-arc type tension from the
cascades, and perhaps thermal doming of the North
American itself have led to large scale extension
of the Basin-and-Range province, forming the
characteristic topography of the Great Basin, and
perhaps also the Rio Grande Rift.
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18Topographic Expression of Extension in Western
U.S.
Basin and Range
Owens Valley
Rio Grande Rift
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19Modern California Basin and Range Extension
- Eastern California is the westernmost edge of the
Basin and Range extensional province. (Owens
Valley is a Basin the Sierra Nevada and
White-Inyo Mountains are Ranges). - Extension is accommodated by normal faults. When
conjugate normal faults form, dipping in opposite
directions with the same strike, the downdropped
block between is called a graben.
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20Modern California Strike-Slip tectonics
- On the other hand, California is also a transform
plate boundary zone, which is accommodated be a
series of strike-slip faults.
- There is evidence of strike-slip motion across
the surface rupture of the 1872 Lone Pine
earthquake. This air-photo of the San Andreas
Fault shows a somewhat clearer offset drainage.
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21Modern California Transtension and transpression
- When you combine strike-slip motion with a
component of extension or a component of
compression, perhaps due to bends in the faults
or motions oblique to the fault directions, you
create a number of characteristic topographic
features. - Death Valley, and parts of the Owens Valley, are
pull-apart basins formed by combined extension
and shear. - The Transverse Ranges, like the San Gabriel
Mountains, are formed by compression due to a big
bend in the San Andreas Fault.
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22Modern California Post-arc magmatism
- Large-scale extension of continental lithosphere
leads to upwelling of asthenospheric mantle and
basaltic volcanism. - This plot shows the thinning of mechanical and
thermal lithospheres and the growth upwards of
the partially molten region as a function of
stretching factor b (final area) / (initial
area). There is substantial Miocene basaltic
volcanism through the Basin and Range province.
- If the basalt is too dense to erupt, it
underplates and heats the crust. Basalt
underplating due to finite extension leads
eventually to crustal melting and Rhyolite
volcanism as at the Rio Grande Rift (Valles
Caldera) or Owens Valley (Long Valley Caldera).
It takes time to conduct heat through the crust,
so we expect a delay between onset of extension
(Miocene) and rhyolite activity (Pleistocene).
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23Modern California Post-arc magmatism
- Long Valley is a Caldera, an elliptical hole
formed by collapse of the roof of a magma chamber
along a ring-shaped normal fault. It formed in a
single catastrophic eruption 760,000 years ago,
ejecting the Bishop Tuff.
- The Bishop Tuff is a volcanic ash deposit
consisting of airfall units (of individual
ballistically emplaced particles), and
ignimbrites or pyroclastic flow deposits
(resulting from gravity-driven currents of air
and suspended particles). The figure at right
shows the stratigraphy of the Tuff units (Ig for
ignimbrite, F for fall), as exposed at the Big
Pumice Cut along Highway 395.
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24Pleistocene California Valley Glaciers
- There is considerable evidence of the action of
Valley Glaciers that descended from the High
Sierra during the Pleistocene ice ages. - Glaciers create a range of characteristic rock
deposits and geomorphic features. We will have
more time to discuss such things later, but here
is the thumbnail version.
- A deposit of unsorted, unlaminated debris from
glacial outwash is called till. - Mounds of till pushed by glaciers or dropped at
locations where the ablation front of the glacier
stalled for a time are called moraines - lateral moraine
- medial moraine
- terminal moraine
- recessional moraine
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