Scientific Revolution

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Scientific Revolution
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Objectives

• Explain the scientific contributions of
  Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, and Newton and how
  these ideas changed the European world view.

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• The Renaissance inspired a spirit of curiosity
• The Reformation encouraged leaders to challenge
  the accepted ways of thinking about God and
  salvation
• A new Revolution was occurring in Europe that
  will challenge how people view their space in the
  universe- the Scientific Revolution

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Medieval View

• Before 1500, people thought whatever the bible or
  ancient philosopher said must be true
• Few European scholars questioned the scientific
  ideas of ancient thinkers or the church by
  carefully observing nature

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Geocentric Theory

• During the Middle Ages most scholars believed the
  earth was unmoving, and was the center of the
  universe
• According to the belief, the sun, moon and other
  planets revolved around the earth
• Common sense supported that view- it seemed the
  sun rises and sets everyday
• This was known as the Geocentric theory
• Was supported by Aristotle and Greek astronomer
  Ptolemy
• The church supported this theory as well, and
  taught that God had purposely put the earth in
  the center of the universe

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• Ptolemys
• Geocentric theory

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New Way of Thinking

• A few scholars published works that challenged
  the old ways of thinking in the 1500s, launching
  a change in European thought
• Historians call this the Scientific Revolution- a
  new way of thinking about the world based on
  observation and willingness to question old
  beliefs

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• During the Renaissance, scholars uncovered many
  old manuscripts and realized that ancient
  authorities didnt always agree with each other
• As Europeans traveled to Africa, Asia and the
  Americas, discoveries that had been unknown for
  centuries, just proved the possibility of new
  truths

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Nicolaus Copernicus

• First major challenge to the old ways of thinking
  was in astronomy
• A small group of scholars questioned the
  geocentric theory
• After studying planetary movements for over 25
  years, Nicolaus Copernicus concluded that the
  stars, earth and other planets revolved around
  the sun

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Heliocentric Theory

• Copernicuss heliocentric theory (sun-centered
  theory) was rejected by most scholars and clergy
  because it contradicted religious views
• Fearing persecution and ridicule, Copernicus
  didnt publish his findings until 1543, the last
  year of his life
• He received a copy of his book, On the
  Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies, on his
  deathbed

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Scientific Revolution

• Galileo
• Italian scientist
• Built new theories about astronomy
• Built his own telescope to study the heavens
• 1610, published Starry Messenger
• Jupiter had four moons
• Sun had dark spots
• Earths moon had rough, uneven surface
• Disproved Aristotles theory that the moon and
  stars were made of pure, perfect substance

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The Warning

• 1616, the Catholic church warned Galileo not to
  defend the ideas of Copernicus
• Galileo remained silent publicly, but continued
  his studies
• In 1632, Galileo published Dialogue Concerning
  the Two Chief World Systems that presented both
  views, but it was clear that Galileo supported
  Copernicuss view
• The pope was angry, and summoned Galileo to stand
  trial before the Inquisition
• Under the threat of torture, Galileo knelt before
  the cardinals and read aloud a signed confession
  agreeing Copernicuss findings were false

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With sincere heart and unpretended faith I
abjure, curse and detest the aforesaid errors and
heresies of Copernicus and also every other
errorcontrary to the Holy Church, and I swear
that in the future I will never again say or
assert anything that may cause similar suspicion
toward me. -Galileo
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• Galileo lived under house arrest and died in 1642
  at his villa near Florence
• His books and ideas still spread all over Europe
• In 1992, pope John Paul II officially
  acknowledged that Galileo was correct in
  asserting that the earth revolves around the sun,
  but concluded that the church acted in good
  faith, and worked with the knowledge of their time

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Scientific Revolution

• Kepler
• Mathematician
• Concluded certain mathematical laws govern
  planetary motion
• One showed the planets revolve around the sun in
  elliptical orbits (instead of circles)
• Showed Copernicuss basic ideas were true

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E. Newtons Universe

• Born 1642
• Studied at Cambridge University
• Watched an apple fall and got the idea of gravity
• 1687, Principia published
• Newtons Laws
• Universal gravitation
• Kept everything in proper orbits
• Invented calculus to explain his theories
• Influenced scientific thought until Einstein

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Scientific Revolution

• Newton
• Theory of Motion
• All physical objects were affected equally by the
  same force
• Law of Universal Gravitation
• Every object in the universe attracts every other
  object
• Published The Mathematical Principles of Natural
  Philosophy
• Described the universe as a clock

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New Ways of Thinking

• Francis Bacon and Rene Descartes used science in
  philosophy
• Bacon scientific method
• Observation, hypothesis, experiments, and
  conclusion
• Descartes believed truth must be reached via
  reason
• Invented analytical geometry
• I think, therefore I am

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New Ways of Thinking

• Robert Boyle-Chemistry
• Great use of the scientific method, especially in
  Chemistry.
• Considered father of modern chemistry.
• Boyles Law- explains how the volume, temperature
  and pressure of gas effect each other

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Scientific Instruments

• 1590- first microscope developed by Dutch
  eyeglass maker, Zacharias Janssen
• 1670s- Anton van Leeuwenhoek used a microscope to
  observe red blood cells and bacteria swimming in
  tooth scrapings

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• 1714 Dutch physicist Gabriel Fahrenheit created
  first thermometer to use mercury in glass,
  showing water freezing at 32 degrees
• 1742-Swedish astronomer, Anders Celsius created
  another scale for the mercury thermometer,
  showing freezing at 0.

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Medicine and the Human Body

• During Middle Ages, European doctors had accepted
  as fact, the writings of ancient Greek physician
  Galen
• Galen had never dissected a human being, but
  studied the anatomy of pigs and other animals
• Galen assumed the anatomy of a human was the same

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• Anatomy of a Pig Anatomy of a human

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• Galens assumptions were proved wrong by Andreas
  Vesalius, a physician who dissected a human
  corpse- despite the disapproval of this practice
• He published his observations in his book, On the
  Fabric of the Human Body which was filled with
  detailed diagrams of human organs, bones and
  muscle

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Vaccines

• 1700s British doctor Edward Jenner introduced a
  vaccine to prevent smallpox
• He did this by using live germs from cowpox
  (cattle disease, but much milder than smallpox)
• Inoculation had been used in Asia for years, and
  could be considered dangerous, but because he
  used a milder disease, the risks were lower

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• Other scholars and philosophers applied a
  scientific approach to other areas of life
• They believed themselves to be rationale, orderly
  and industrious- or enlightened
• These people would become the leaders of an
  intellectual movement called the Enlightenement

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The Enlightenment
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The Enlightenment Begins

• New intellectual movement which stressed reason
  and thought and the power of individuals to solve
  problems
• Started from some key ideas put forth by Thomas
  Hobbes and John Locke

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Hobbes Explore Govt.

• Thomas Hobbes
• Believed in natural law
• Absolute monarchy was the best way to maintain
  order
• Leviathan published in 1651
• Man was evil and needed laws
• Govt. was a social contract to protect the people
• People could rebel if the contract was broken

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Locke Offers a Different View

• John Locke
• Agreed on natural laws and social contracts
• Believed in natural rights of the individual
• Life, liberty, and the pursuit of property
• Two Treatises of Govt.
• Govt. was best when power was limited
• If it failed its duties to protect rights, it
  should be overthrown
• Influenced Thomas Jefferson

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The Enlightenment Begins

• Locke
• Purpose of government is to protect these rights
  if a government fails to do so, citizens have the
  right to overthrow it
• Ideas are the foundation of modern democracy

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Who do you agree with? Hobbes or Locke?
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The Philosophes

• Social critics in France
• Believed they could apply reason to all aspects
  of life
• Five concepts formed their core beliefs
• Reason
• Truth can be discovered through logical thinking
• Nature
• What was natural was also good and reasonable
• Happiness
• Seek well-being on earth
• Progress
• Society and humankind can improve
• Liberty
• Personal liberties Bill of Rights

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Voltaire

• Francois-Marie Arouet
• Served time twice at the Bastille
• Wrote books in exile supporting Bacon and Newton
• Believed in religious liberty and free speech
• I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend
  to the death your right to say it.

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Montesquieu

• Baron de Montesquieu
• The Spirit of Laws, 1748
• Separation of powers divided among the branches
  of govt.
• Legislative, executive, and judicial
• Believed in the rights of the individual

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Enlightenment Opponents

• 1. Jean-Jacques Rousseau
• Committed to individual freedom
• Believed the only good government was a direct
  democracy
• Had his own definition of the social contract
• Agreement among free individuals to create a
  society and a government
• Wanted to abolish titles of equality

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Important Philosophes

• Beccaria
• Examined the justice system
• Argued persons accused of a crime should receive
  a speedy trial, and torture should never be used
  degree of punishment should vary based on the
  crime

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Women and the Enlightenment

• Mary Wollstonecraft
• Argued that women, like men, need education to
  become useful
• Urged women to enter male-dominated fields of
  medicine and politics
• Women helped spread Enlightenment ideas through
  social gatherings called salons

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Enlightenment and Monarchy
IV) The Enlightenment Spreads A)
Enlightened Despots (enlightened absolute
rulers) best form of government was a
monarch who respected individual rights

• Frederick the Great of Prussia
• a) granted religious freedom
• b) reduced censorship
• c) improved the education system
• d) abolished torture
• e) called The First Servant of the State

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Enlightenment and Monarchy

• 2) Joseph II of Austria
• a) freedom of the press
• b) freedom of religion
• c) abolished serfdom

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Enlightenment and Monarchy
3) Catherine the Great of Russia a)
Recommended allowing religious freedom
and abolishing torture and capital
punishment i) none of her recommendations
were ever put into law b) Her
enlightened views changed after a
peasant uprising which she crushed c) She
expanded Russia by winning a warm water
port from the Ottomans d) She also grabbed
land from Poland i) After losing land to
Russia, Prussia, and Austria, Poland
ceased to exist
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Legacy of the Enlightenment

• Theories helped inspired revolutionary movements
• Three long-term effects
• Belief in Progress
• Growth of scientific knowledge led to many key
  new discoveries
• A More Secular Outlook
• Rise of a non-religious outlook
• Mysteries of the universe could now be explained
  mathematically
• Importance of the Individual
• People began to turn away from the church and
  royalty for guidance looked to themselves
• Can figure out for themselves what is right or
  wrong

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F. Classical Movements

• Art, music, and literature were affected by the
  Enlightenment
• Everything must have order and reason
• Copied the Romans
• Music was the newest art form
• Pianos and violins were popular
• Bach, Handel, and Mozart