Chapter nine

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Chapter nine

• Language and literature

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9.1 introduction

• The history of style
• The definition of stylistics
• The features of stylistics in different periods
• 1960s
• 1970s
• 1980s
• 1990s
• Remarks of ??plural-heads developments
• Different schools of stylistics compete for
  development and new schools emerge now and then.

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9.2 some general features of the literary language

• Features of literary language are displayed in
  the following three aspects
• 1. phonology
• 2. grammar
• 3. semantics
• Literay language differs from non-literary
  language in that the former is foregrounded in
  the above three aspects.

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The term foregrounding

• Definition
• Deviation of language involves all levels of
  language vocabulary, sound, syntax, meaning,
  graphology,etc.
• Repetition is also a kind of deviation.
• Alliteration, parallism, and many figures of
  speech are the examples of foregrounding in
  literary language.

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9.2.1 foregrounding and the grammatical form

• In literary texts, the grammatical system of the
  language is often exploited, experimented with,
  or in Mukaroskys words, made to deviate from
  other, more everyday, forms of language, and as a
  result creates interesting new patterns in form
  and in meaning.

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9.2.2 literal language and figurative language

• The definitions of the two
• Is non-literary language the same as literal
  language?
• Is literary language the same as figurative
  language?
• What the difference of the two groups of ideas?
• Literary language
• Non-literary language
• Literal language
• Figurative language

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Trope

• It is another word for the figurative use of
  language, which refers to language used in a
  figurative way for a rhetorical purpose.

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Some forms of trope

• Simile
• Metaphor
• Metonymy
• Synecdoche

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Why people use language in a figurative way?

• The figurative use of language has the effect of
  making the concepts under discussion more
  domestic and acceptable. Readers can

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9.2.3 the analysis of literay language

• Procedures we should follow when we analyze the
  grammatical structure and meaning of a literary
  text.
• 1.
• 2.
• 3.
• 4.
• 5.
• 6.
• 7.
• 8.

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The function of the figurative use of language

• It might be to make the abstract seem concrete
  to make the mysterious or frightening seem safe,
  ordinary and domestic, or to make the everyday
  usage seem wonderful and unusual.

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9.3 the language in poetry
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9.3.1 sound patterning

• Rhyme is salient feature of poetry.
• End rhyme occurs at the end of a line in a poem,
  the pattern is cVC. The last word of a line has
  the same final sounds as the last word of another
  line, sometimes immediately above or below,
  sometimes one or more lines away.
• End rhyme is very common in some poetic styles,
  and particularly in childrens poetry.
• It is also a feature in plays and songs.

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9.3.2 different forms of sound patterning /
different rhymes

• Internal rhyme
• Alliteration the initial consonants are
  identical in it (Cvc).
• Assonance it describes syllables with a common
  vowel (cVc).
• Consonance it describes syllables with the same
  consonants (cvC). It is also called half-rhyme.
• Reverse rhyme syllables sharing the vowel and
  initial consonant, CVc, rather than the vowel and
  the final consonant as is the case in end rhyme,
  Cvc.
• Pararhyme two syllables having the same initial
  and final consonants, but different vowels (CvC),
  they pararhyme.
• Repetition two exactly same syllables.

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9.3.3 stress and metrical patterning

• Stressed syllable
• Unstressed syllable
• Which syllable is stressed is decided by two
  elements
• 1.
• 2.
• Rhyme the repetition of a sound or sound
  combination. (?)
• Rhythms (??)come out of the arrangment of
  stressed and unstressed syllables.
• When stress is organized to form regular rhythms,
  the term used for it is meter. (??)
• Units of meter are called feet. (??)

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The types of feet

• Iamb
• Trochee
• Anapest
• Dactyl
• Spondee
• Pyrrhic

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Lines with different numbers of feet

• Dimeter a line with two feet.
• Trimeter
• Tetrameter
• Pentameter
• Hexameter
• Heptameter
• Octameter

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9.3.4 conventional forms of meter and sound

• Couplet
• Quatrains
• Blank verse
• Sonnet
• Free verse
• Limericks
• ? What is the difference of blank verse and free
  verse?

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The poetic functions of sound and metre

• Why do poets use sound and metrical patterning in
  their poetry?
• 1.
• 2.
• 3.
• 4.
• 5.
• 6.

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9.3.6 how to analyse poetry?

• Areas of discussion should be covered when we
  analyse poetry?
• 1.
• 2.
• -a
• -b
• -c
• -d
• -e
• -f

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9.4 the language in fiction

• Three levels of discourse to account for the
  language of fictional prose( i.e. a novel or
  short story)
• 1.
• 2.
• 3.
• At least there are six viewpoints to analyse the
  discourse structure of a fictional prose.

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I-narrators/ the first person narration

• ??????????,?????????????????The Catcher in the
  Rye, Wuthering Heights, Moby Dick.
• Strong points of it
• Weak points of it

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Third-person narration

• ??????????,???????????,?????????????????Tom
  Jones by Henry Fielding

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Schema-oriented language
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Given and new information
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deixis
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9.4.2 speech and thought presentation

• (1) speech can be presented in five ways
• 1)
• 2)
• 3)
• 4)
• 5) free indirect speech
• examples

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Thought presentation

• (2) thought can be presented also in five ways.
• As the effects associated with NRT, NRTA or IT
  are roughly the same as those associated with
  speech presentation, attention will be focused on
  the discussion of DT and FIT.

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Direct thought

• The usage of it
• The difference of direct thought and soliloquy.

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Free indirect thought

• The typical effect of it
• The marked difference of FIS and FIT

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stream of consciousness writing

• Limited point of view of the third-person
  narration

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The features of stream of consciousness writing

• The most free version of DT
• Highly elliptical sentence structure

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Prose style

• Authorial style
• Text style

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9.4.4 how to analyse the language of fiction

• 1.
• 2.
• 3.
• 4.
• 5.
• 6.

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9.5 the language in drama

• A play exists in two ways---- on the page, and on
  the stage.
• The different features of the two types of play

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9.5.1 how should we analyse drama?

• Drama as poetry
• Drama as fiction
• Drama as conversation

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9.5.2 analyze the dramatic language

• 1. turn quantity and length
• 2. exchange sequence
• 3. production errors
• 4. the cooperative principle
• 5. status marked through language
• 6. register
• 7. speech silence

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9.5.3 how to analyze dramatic texts?

• 1.
• 2.
• 3.

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9.6 the cognitive approach to literature
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9.6.1 theoretical background

• Three cognitive tools
• Figure and ground
• Image schemata
• Cognitive metaphor

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9.6.2 an example of cognitive analysis