protected areas-habitat primarily managed to maintain biodiversity

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• protected areas-habitat primarily managed to
  maintain biodiversity
•  
• -protecting intact biological communities is the
  most effective way to protect biodiversity and
  are established in three ways
• 1) government action
• 2) purchase of land by private organizations Ex.
  Nature Conservancy
• 3) traditional societies wishing to preserve
  lands to maintain their way of life
• -80 established since 1962 and currently cover
  about 13 of earths surface Figure 15.1, 15.5

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15.1 The worlds terrestrial (green) and marine
(blue) protected areas
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Figure 15.5 80 pna established since 1962 and
currently cover about 13 of earths surface
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IUCN Classification of Protected Areas

• International Union for the Conservation of
  Nature (IUCN) has developed the following system
  of classification for protected areas
• 1) strict nature reserves and wilderness areas
• -protect natural organisms and processes in an
  undisturbed state
• -for scientific study, education, environmental
  monitoring, and maintenance of genetic variation
• -wilderness areas may also be maintained for
  sustainable recreational and economic activities
• Ex. parts of Padre Island National Seashore and
  other large protected areas
•  2) national parks
• -large areas of outstanding scenic and natural
  beauty of international and national importance
• Ex. Big Bend National Park, Guadalupe Mountains
  National Park
•  

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IUCN Classification of Protected Areas

• 3) national monuments
• -smaller areas designed to preserve unique
  natural areas of special national interest
• Ex. San Antonio Missions National Historic Park
•  
• 4) Habitat/species management areas
• -similar to strict nature reserves, but some
  human manipulation may be needed and some
  controlled harvesting may be permitted
• -National Wildlife Refuge system and in Texas,
  Aransas National Wildlife Refuge
•  
• 1-4 are strict protected areas as their primary
  mission is protection biodiversity (6 earths
  surface)

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IUCN Classification of Protected Areas

• 5) Protected landscapes and seascapes
• -areas that allow for interaction of people and
  the environment through traditional
  nondestructive use of natural resources while
  providing chances for tourism and recreation
• -grazing land, orchards, or fishing villages
• Ex. Big Bend Ranch Natural Area
•  
• 6) Managed-resource protected areas
• -allows for sustained production of natural
  resources in a manner that ensures the
  preservation of some aspects of biodiversity
• -most of the national forests located in Texas

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• -there were 160,000 IUCN I-VI protected areas
  worldwide covering about 30 million square
  kilometers on land and two million at sea (13
  of earth's total land surface but only 6 in
  strict protected areas) Table 15.1
• -even less area in marine protected areas with
  most being small with less than 2 protected and
  as much as 10 may be needed Figure 15.3, Read
  Box 15.1, The rise of giant marine protected
  areas
• -Recent studies from Brazil and West Africa show
  that protected areas are effective in keeping
  land intact by preserving natural vegetation
  Figure 15.4

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15.3 The proportion of the continental shelf
covered by marine protected areas
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Figure 15.4 Protected natural areas are able to
prevent damage to the natural forests
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• Three main criteria used to set priorities for
  creating a protected area
•  
• 1) distinctiveness
• Does it contain rare endemics? unique ecosystems?
•  
• 2) endangerment
• Does it contain vulnerable, threatened, or
  endangered species? communities?
•  
• 3) utility
• Are the species/communities beneficial to man?
• Ex. The establishment of Komodo National Park in
  Indonesia Figure 15.7 (Malaysia island
  archipelago off SE coast Asia)
• 1) distinctiveness -largest lizard
• 2) endangerment -occur only on a few small
  islands
• 3) utility -major tourist attraction

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15.7 The Komodo dragon of Indonesia is the
largest living monitor lizard
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Species approaches to establish pnas

• 1) species approaches
• -species are referred to as focal species-
  species that provide impetus to protect an area
• -may be rare, endangered , keystone, or
  culturally significant species
• -two types
•  a. indicator species- a species associated with
  an endangered biological community or set of
  unique ecosystem processes
• Ex. spotted owl in the U.S. Northwest is an
  indicator of old growth forest
• Ex. red-cockaded woodpecker is an indicator for
  old-growth, longleaf pine forest in U.S.
  Southeast
•  
• b. flagship species or charismatic megafauna-
  species that capture public attention, have
  symbolic power, and are crucial to ecotourism
• -helped in the establishment of many national
  parks
• Ex. 18 Project Tiger Reserves established in
  India where tigers serve as an umbrella species
  as these pnas extend protection to other species

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15.8 The northern spotted owl is an indicator
species for old-growth forest
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Biologivcal diversity indicator approaches to
establish pnas

• 2) Biological diversity indicator approaches
• -certain organisms used as indicators when
  specific data about whole communities is lacking
• -plant and bird diversity are often good
  indicators of diversity in a community
• - may include data from Centers of biodiversity
• -key areas of the world with high biodiversity
  and endemism and are under immediate threat of
  species extinctions and habitat destruction
• -often called hot spots for preservation
• Figure 15.9, Table 15.2, Figure 15.10

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15.9(A) Sixteen tropical rain forest hot spots
of high endemism and significant threat of
imminent extinctions (B) Eighteen hotspots in
other ecosystems. Yellow dots indicate armed
conflicts .
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15.10 Peaks of species richness (redmost) in
the mainland USA. Hawaii has the greatest.
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Ecosystem approaches to establish pnas

• 3) Ecosystem approaches
• -protects species, community members, and
  ecosystem services
• -easier to demonstrate value to policy makers
• -goal is to represent as many different
  communities as possible
• -uses data like that in Figure 15. 11for 13 major
  terrestrial biomes
• -sometimes gap analysis is used in determining
  pnas

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15.11 For 13 major biomes, percent of the area
converted to other uses, and that of the area
protected from conversion. CP is ratio of
percent converted to the percent protected.
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Gap Analysis

• Six steps in gap analysis 
• 1) Conservation units are established. These
  include data on species, ecosystems, and physical
  features of a region.
•  2) Conservation goals are determined for the
  units.
• Ex. How much area or rare species will be
  protected?
•  3) Existing protected areas are reviewed to
  identify gaps in coverage.
•  4) Additional areas are identified to meet the
  conservation goals or fill the gaps.
• -often uses GIS data and census data for rare or
  endangered species Figures 15.13 15.14
•  5. These additional areas are acquired for
  conservation and a management plan is developed.
•  6. New conservation areas are monitored to
  determine if they are meeting their goals or
  whether management plans need to be modified.

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15.13 The imminent extinction of 794 animals and
plant species is mapped at 595 sites
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15.14 Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
integrates data for display on maps.