PARADIGMS, THEORY, AND RESEARCH

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CHAPTER 2

• PARADIGMS, THEORY, AND RESEARCH

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Dictionary definitions (from Hypertext Webster
Gateway)

• Deduction That which is deduced or drawn from
  premises by a process of reasoning an inference
  a conclusion
• Classic Example If the premises are true, the
  conclusion is true.
• All persons are mortal (major premise, general
  rule).
• Amy is a person (minor premise, case).
• Hence, Amy is mortal (conclusion).

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Dictionary definitions (from Hypertext Webster
Gateway)

• Induction The act or process of reasoning from a
  part to a whole, from particulars to generals, or
  from the individual to the universal also, the
  result or inference so reached
• Classic Example The truth of the premises does
  not guarantee the truth of the conclusion.
• Amy is mortal (major premise, observation).
• Amy is a person (minor premise, case).
• Hence, all persons are mortal (conclusion,
  general rule).

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Definitions from Babbie text

• Deduction the logical model in which specific
  expectations are developed on the basis of
  general principles
• Induction the logical model in which general
  principles are developed from specific
  observations

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Deduction the logical model in which specific
expectations are developed on the basis of
general principles
Theory
Hypotheses

• Observations

Empirical Generalizations
Theory
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Induction the logical model in which general
principles are developed from specific
observations
Observations
Empirical Generalizations
Theory
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Deduction and Induction on the Wheel of Science
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Defining concepts from the Wheel (definitions
from Babbie)

• Theories - systematic explanations for the
  observations that relate to a particular aspect
  of life sets of propositions explaining a
  phenomenon
• Hypotheses - expectations about the nature of
  things derived from theories a statement of
  something that ought to be observed in the real
  world if the theory is correct. Variables are the
  building blocks of hypotheses.

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• Observations - the process of information
  gathering or data collection in research.
• Empirical Generalizations - conclusions based on
  the results of data analysis, either qualitative
  or quantitative.

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Deduction the logical model in which specific
expectations are developed on the basis of
general principles
Theory
Hypotheses

• Observations

Empirical Generalizations
Theory
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Example from Text Explain what's in the diagrams
(a, b, c).
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A social scientific example of the deductive
method

• Identify a topic of interest e.g., occupational
  success
• Develop your theory on the basis of prior social
  scientific theory or create a new theory
• The theory should address why some people are
  more successful in their occupations than others.

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• Specify your major variables e.g., level of
  education, social class background, gender,
  income, level of occupational prestige
• Derive one or more testable hypotheses
• Conduct research, collect observations, and
  analyze data
• Consider the theoretical implications of your
  empirical results

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How to develop hypotheses

• Clearly identify independent (presumed cause) and
  dependent (presumed effect) variables
• Develop a logical argument for an IV-DV
  relationship
• Specify the nature of the expected relationship
  (next 4 slides)

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Nature of the expected relationship (1)

• (1) Quantitative IV Quantitative DV
• Positive/Direct IV?DV? and IV?DV?
• Level of formal education will be positively
  related to level of occupational prestige, with
  people at higher levels of formal education
  having higher levels of occupational prestige.
• Negative/Indirect IV?DV? and IV?DV?
• Level of formal education will be negatively
  related to level of prejudice, with people at
  higher levels of formal education having lower
  levels of racial prejudice.

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(1) Quantitative IV and Quantitative
DV Positive/Direct IV?DV? and IV?DV?
Income (DV)
High
Low
Low
High
Number of Years of Formal Education (IV)
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(1) Quantitative IV and Quantitative
DV Negative/Indirect IV?DV? and IV?DV?
Income (DV)
High
Low
Low
High
Number of Years of Formal Education (IV)
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Nature of the expected relationship (2)

• (2) Non-quantitative IV Quantitative DV
• Certain attributes of IV will have higher values
  of DV.
• Gender will be related to level of church
  attendance, with females having higher levels of
  church attendance than males.
• Certain attributes of IV will have lower values
  of DV.
• Religious affiliation will be related to
  attitude toward abortion, with Catholics having
  lower levels of approval of abortion than those
  in other religious groups (Protestants, Jewish
  people, other religion, no religious affiliation).

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Nature of the expected relationship (3)

• (3) Quantitative IV Non-quantitative DV
• Higher values of IV will fall into certain
  attributes of DV.
• Level of job satisfaction will be related to
  whether people would continue to work if rich,
  with those at higher levels of job satisfaction
  being more likely to say they would continue to
  work if rich than people at lower levels of job
  satisfaction.
• Lower values of IV will fall into certain
  attributes of DV.
• Age will be related to attitude toward capital
  punishment, with younger people being less likely
  to favor capital punishment than older people.

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Nature of the expected relationship (4)

• (4) Non-quantitative IV and non-quantitative DV
• Certain attributes of IV will fall into certain
  attributes of DV.
• Gun ownership will be related to attitude toward
  mandatory firearms registration, with people who
  own guns being less likely to favor mandatory
  firearms registration than people who do not own
  guns.
• Whether or not people have children will be
  related to type of vehicle owned, with people who
  have children being more likely to own mini-vans
  than those who do not.

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Hypothesis development using the GSS

• General Social Survey Codebook
• On left, use Mnemonic link if you know the
  variable name(s).
• On left, use Subject link if you are trying to
  find variables that would be relevant to a
  particular topic.

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Induction the logical model in which general
principles are developed from specific
observations
Observations
Empirical Generalizations
Theory
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Example from Text Explain what's in the diagrams
(a, b, c).
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A social scientific example of the inductive
method

• You want to find out who likes coed dorms better
  - women or men and develop a theory on the
  basis of your observations.
• You gather data of instances in which you observe
  specific behaviors or statements by women and men
  relevant to their liking of coed dorms.
• You analyze your data. Empirical generalization
  more women than men like coed dorms.
• Based on your results, develop a theory that
  might account for the observed fact that more
  women than men like coed dorms.

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Deduction/Induction - Which is better?

• Deduction is often viewed as more scientific,
  because hypotheses are tested.
• However, see Wheel of Science (next slide) both
  are important parts of the scientific process.
• Induction is most often used in exploratory
  phases of research and deduction in theory
  testing phases.

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Wheel of Science Revisited