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Chapter 8 Periodic Properties of the Elements

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Periodic Law When the elements are arranged in order of ... 23 NaH. Be. m/nm BeO. a/b. 9 BeH2. m MgO. b. 24 MgH2. Mg. nm B2O3. a. 11 ( BH3)n. B. m Al2O3. a/b ... – PowerPoint PPT presentation

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Title: Chapter 8 Periodic Properties of the Elements


1
Chapter 8Periodic Properties of the Elements
Chemistry A Molecular Approach, 1st Ed.Nivaldo
Tro
Roy Kennedy Massachusetts Bay Community
College Wellesley Hills, MA
2007, Prentice Hall
2
Mendeleev
  • order elements by atomic mass
  • saw a repeating pattern of properties
  • Periodic Law When the elements are arranged in
    order of increasing atomic mass, certain sets of
    properties recur periodically
  • put elements with similar properties in the same
    column
  • used pattern to predict properties of
    undiscovered elements
  • where atomic mass order did not fit other
    properties, he re-ordered by other properties
  • Te I

3
Periodic Pattern
nm O2 16 H2O
m Al2O3 a/b 27 (AlH3)
nm/m SiO2 a 28 SiH4
m metal, nm nonmetal, m/nm metalloid
a acidic oxide, b basic oxide, a/b
amphoteric oxide
4
Mendeleev's Predictions
5
What vs. Why
  • Mendeleevs Periodic Law allows us to predict
    what the properties of an element will be based
    on its position on the table
  • it doesnt explain why the pattern exists
  • Quantum Mechanics is a theory that explains why
    the periodic trends in the properties exist

6
Electron Spin
  • experiments by Stern and Gerlach showed a beam of
    silver atoms is split in two by a magnetic field
  • the experiment reveals that the electrons spin on
    their axis
  • as they spin, they generate a magnetic field
  • spinning charged particles generate a magnetic
    field
  • if there is an even number of electrons, about
    half the atoms will have a net magnetic field
    pointing North and the other half will have a
    net magnetic field pointing South

7
Electron Spin Experiment
8
Spin Quantum Number, ms
  • spin quantum number describes how the electron
    spins on its axis
  • clockwise or counterclockwise
  • spin up or spin down
  • spins must cancel in an orbital
  • paired
  • ms can have values of ½

9
Pauli Exclusion Principle
  • no two electrons in an atom may have the same set
    of 4 quantum numbers
  • therefore no orbital may have more than 2
    electrons, and they must have with opposite spins
  • knowing the number orbitals in a sublevel allows
    us to determine the maximum number of electrons
    in the sublevel
  • s sublevel has 1 orbital, therefore it can hold 2
    electrons
  • p sublevel has 3 orbitals, therefore it can hold
    6 electrons
  • d sublevel has 5 orbitals, therefore it can hold
    10 electrons
  • f sublevel has 7 orbitals, therefore it can hold
    14 electrons

10
Allowed Quantum Numbers
11
Quantum Numbers of Heliums Electrons
  • helium has two electrons
  • both electrons are in the first energy level
  • both electrons are in the s orbital of the first
    energy level
  • since they are in the same orbital, they must
    have opposite spins

12
Electron Configurations
  • the ground state of the electron is the lowest
    energy orbital it can occupy
  • the distribution of electrons into the various
    orbitals in an atom in its ground state is called
    its electron configuration
  • the number designates the principal energy level
  • the letter designates the sublevel and type of
    orbital
  • the superscript designates the number of
    electrons in that sublevel
  • He 1s2

13
Orbital Diagrams
  • we often represent an orbital as a square and the
    electrons in that orbital as arrows
  • the direction of the arrow represents the spin of
    the electron

14
Sublevel Splitting in Multielectron Atoms
  • the sublevels in each principal energy level of
    Hydrogen all have the same energy we call
    orbitals with the same energy degenerate
  • or other single electron systems
  • for multielectron atoms, the energies of the
    sublevels are split
  • caused by electron-electron repulsion
  • the lower the value of the l quantum number, the
    less energy the sublevel has
  • s (l 0) lt p (l 1) lt d (l 2) lt f (l 3)

15
Penetrating and Shielding
  • the radial distribution function shows that the
    2s orbital penetrates more deeply into the 1s
    orbital than does the 2p
  • the weaker penetration of the 2p sublevel means
    that electrons in the 2p sublevel experience more
    repulsive force, they are more shielded from the
    attractive force of the nucleus
  • the deeper penetration of the 2s electrons means
    electrons in the 2s sublevel experience a greater
    attractive force to the nucleus and are not
    shielded as effectively
  • the result is that the electrons in the 2s
    sublevel are lower in energy than the electrons
    in the 2p

16
Penetration Shielding
17
Energy
  • Notice the following
  • because of penetration, sublevels within an
    energy level are not degenerate
  • penetration of the 4th and higher energy levels
    is so strong that their s sublevel is lower in
    energy than the d sublevel of the previous energy
    level
  • the energy difference between levels becomes
    smaller for higher energy levels

18
Order of Subshell Fillingin Ground State
Electron Configurations
start by drawing a diagram putting each energy
shell on a row and listing the subshells, (s, p,
d, f), for that shell in order of energy,
(left-to-right)
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s 4p 4d 4f 5s 5p 5d 5f 6s 6p 6d
7s
next, draw arrows through the diagonals, looping
back to the next diagonal each time
19
Filling the Orbitals with Electrons
  • energy shells fill from lowest energy to high
  • subshells fill from lowest energy to high
  • s ? p ? d ? f
  • Aufbau Principle
  • orbitals that are in the same subshell have the
    same energy
  • no more than 2 electrons per orbital
  • Pauli Exclusion Principle
  • when filling orbitals that have the same energy,
    place one electron in each before completing
    pairs
  • Hunds Rule

20
Example 8.1 Write the Ground State Electron
Configuration and Orbital Diagram and of
Magnesium.
  • Determine the atomic number of the element from
    the Periodic Table
  • This gives the number of protons and electrons in
    the atom
  • Mg Z 12, so Mg has 12 protons and 12 electrons

21
Example 8.1 Write the Ground State Electron
Configuration and Orbital Diagram and of
Magnesium.
  • Draw 9 boxes to represent the first 3 energy
    levels s and p orbitals
  • since there are only 12 electrons, 9 should be
    plenty

22
Example 8.1 Write the Ground State Electron
Configuration and Orbital Diagram and of
Magnesium.
  • Add one electron to each box in a set, then pair
    the electrons before going to the next set until
    you use all the electrons
  • When pair, put in opposite arrows

??
??
?
??
?
?
?
?
?
1s
2s
2p
3s
3p
23
Example 8.1 Write the Ground State Electron
Configuration and Orbital Diagram and of
Magnesium.
  • Use the diagram to write the electron
    configuration
  • Write the number of electrons in each set as a
    superscript next to the name of the orbital set
  • 1s22s22p63s2 Ne3s2

24
Valence Electrons
  • the electrons in all the subshells with the
    highest principal energy shell are called the
    valence electrons
  • electrons in lower energy shells are called core
    electrons
  • chemists have observed that one of the most
    important factors in the way an atom behaves,
    both chemically and physically, is the number of
    valence electrons

25
Electron Configuration of Atoms in their Ground
State
  • Kr 36 electrons
  • 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p6
  • there are 28 core electrons and 8 valence
    electrons
  • Rb 37 electrons
  • 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s1
  • Kr5s1
  • for the 5s1 electron in Rb the set of quantum
    numbers is n 5, l 0, ml 0, ms ½
  • for an electron in the 2p sublevel, the set of
    quantum numbers is n 2, l 1, ml -1 or
    (0,1), and ms - ½ or (½)

26
Electron Configurations
27
Electron Configuration the Periodic Table
  • the Group number corresponds to the number of
    valence electrons
  • the length of each block is the maximum number
    of electrons the sublevel can hold
  • the Period number corresponds to the principal
    energy level of the valence electrons

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29
s2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
d1 d2 d3 d4 d5 d6 d7 d8 d9 d10
f2 f3 f4 f5 f6 f7 f8 f9 f10 f11 f12
f13 f14 f14d1
30
Electron Configuration fromthe Periodic Table
8A
1A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3A
4A
5A
6A
7A
2A
Ne
P
3s2
3p3
P Ne3s23p3 P has 5 valence electrons
31
Transition Elements
  • for the d block metals, the principal energy
    level is one less than valence shell
  • one less than the Period number
  • sometimes s electron promoted to d sublevel

Zn Z 30, Period 4, Group 2B Ar4s23d10
  • for the f block metals, the principal energy
    level is two less than valence shell
  • two less than the Period number they really
    belong to
  • sometimes d electron in configuration

Eu Z 63, Period 6 Xe6s24f 7
32
Electron Configuration fromthe Periodic Table
8A
1A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3A
4A
5A
6A
7A
2A
Ar
3d10
As
4s2
4p3
As Ar4s23d104p3 As has 5 valence electrons
33
Practice Use the Periodic Table to write the
short electron configuration and orbital diagram
for each of the following
  • Na (at. no. 11)
  • Te (at. no. 52)
  • Tc (at. no. 43)

34
Practice Use the Periodic Table to write the
short electron configuration and orbital diagram
for each of the following
  • Na (at. no. 11) Ne3s1
  • Te (at. no. 52) Kr5s24d105p4
  • Tc (at. no. 43) Kr5s24d5

3s
5s
5p
4d
5s
4d
35
Properties Electron Configuration
  • elements in the same column have similar chemical
    and physical properties because they have the
    same number of valence electrons in the same
    kinds of orbitals

36
Electron Configuration Element Properties
  • the number of valence electrons largely
    determines the behavior of an element
  • chemical and some physical
  • since the number of valence electrons follows a
    Periodic pattern, the properties of the elements
    should also be periodic
  • quantum mechanical calculations show that 8
    valence electrons should result in a very
    unreactive atom, an atom that is very stable
    and the noble gases, that have 8 valence
    electrons are all very stable and unreactive
  • conversely, elements that have either one more or
    one less electron should be very reactive and
    the halogens are the most reactive nonmetals and
    alkali metals the most reactive metals
  • as a group

37
Electron Configuration Ion Charge
  • we have seen that many metals and nonmetals form
    one ion, and that the charge on that ion is
    predictable based on its position on the Periodic
    Table
  • Group 1A 1, Group 2A 2, Group 7A -1,
    Group 6A -2, etc.
  • these atoms form ions that will result in an
    electron configuration that is the same as the
    nearest noble gas

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39
Electron Configuration of Anions in their Ground
State
  • anions are formed when atoms gain enough
    electrons to have 8 valence electrons
  • filling the s and p sublevels of the valence
    shell
  • the sulfur atom has 6 valence electrons
  • S atom 1s22s22p63s23p4
  • in order to have 8 valence electrons, it must
    gain 2 more
  • S2- anion 1s22s22p63s23p6

40
Electron Configuration of Cations in their Ground
State
  • cations are formed when an atom loses all its
    valence electrons
  • resulting in a new lower energy level valence
    shell
  • however the process is always endothermic
  • the magnesium atom has 2 valence electrons
  • Mg atom 1s22s22p63s2
  • when it forms a cation, it loses its valence
    electrons
  • Mg2 cation 1s22s22p6

41
Trend in Atomic Radius Main Group
  • Different methods for measuring the radius of an
    atom, and they give slightly different trends
  • van der Waals radius nonbonding
  • covalent radius bonding radius
  • atomic radius is an average radius of an atom
    based on measuring large numbers of elements and
    compounds
  • Atomic Radius Increases down group
  • valence shell farther from nucleus
  • effective nuclear charge fairly close
  • Atomic Radius Decreases across period (left to
    right)
  • adding electrons to same valence shell
  • effective nuclear charge increases
  • valence shell held closer

42
Effective Nuclear Charge
  • in a multi-electron system, electrons are
    simultaneously attracted to the nucleus and
    repelled by each other
  • outer electrons are shielded from full strength
    of nucleus
  • screening effect
  • effective nuclear charge is net positive charge
    that is attracting a particular electron
  • Z is nuclear charge, S is electrons in lower
    energy levels
  • electrons in same energy level contribute to
    screening, but very little
  • effective nuclear charge on sublevels trend, s gt
    p gt d gt f
  • Zeffective Z - S

43
Screening Effective Nuclear Charge
44
Trends in Atomic RadiusTransition Metals
  • increase in size down the Group
  • atomic radii of transition metals roughly the
    same size across the d block
  • must less difference than across main group
    elements
  • valence shell ns2, not the d electrons
  • effective nuclear charge on the ns2 electrons
    approximately the same

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47
Example 8.5 Choose the Larger Atom in Each
Pair
48
Electron Configuration of Cations in their Ground
State
  • cations form when the atom loses electrons from
    the valence shell
  • for transition metals electrons, may be removed
    from the sublevel closest to the valence shell
  • Al atom 1s22s22p63s23p1
  • Al3 ion 1s22s22p6
  • Fe atom 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d6
  • Fe2 ion 1s22s22p63s23p63d6
  • Fe3 ion 1s22s22p63s23p63d5
  • Cu atom 1s22s22p63s23p64s13d10
  • Cu1 ion 1s22s22p63s23p63d10

49
Magnetic Properties of Transition Metal Atoms
Ions
  • electron configurations that result in unpaired
    electrons mean that the atom or ion will have a
    net magnetic field this is called paramagnetism
  • will be attracted to a magnetic field
  • electron configurations that result in all paired
    electrons mean that the atom or ion will have no
    magnetic field this is called diamagnetism
  • slightly repelled by a magnetic field
  • both Zn atoms and Zn2 ions are diamagnetic,
    showing that the two 4s electrons are lost before
    the 3d
  • Zn atoms Ar4s23d10
  • Zn2 ions Ar4s03d10

50
Example 8.6 Write the Electron Configuration
and Determine whether the Fe atom and Fe3 ion
are Paramagnetic or Diamagnetic
  • Fe Z 26
  • previous noble gas Ar
  • 18 electrons

51
Trends in Ionic Radius
  • Ions in same group have same charge
  • Ion size increases down the group
  • higher valence shell, larger
  • Cations smaller than neutral atom Anions bigger
    than neutral atom
  • Cations smaller than anions
  • except Rb1 Cs1 bigger or same size as F-1 and
    O-2
  • Larger positive charge smaller cation
  • for isoelectronic species
  • isoelectronic same electron configuration
  • Larger negative charge larger anion
  • for isoelectronic series

52
Periodic Pattern - Ionic Radius (Ã…)
1A
2A 3A 4A 5A
6A 7A
3
1.71
0.68
0.31
1.40
1.33
0.23
1
0.51
2.12
1.81
0.66
0.97
1.84
0.62
1.96
1.33
0.99
1.98
2.22
0.81
0.71
1.13
2.20
2.21
1.47
0.84
0.95
1.69
1.35
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55
Ionization Energy
  • minimum energy needed to remove an electron from
    an atom
  • gas state
  • endothermic process
  • valence electron easiest to remove
  • M(g) IE1 ? M1(g) 1 e-
  • M1(g) IE2 ? M2(g) 1 e-
  • first ionization energy energy to remove
    electron from neutral atom 2nd IE energy to
    remove from 1 ion etc.

56
General Trends in 1st Ionization Energy
  • larger the effective nuclear charge on the
    electron, the more energy it takes to remove it
  • the farther the most probable distance the
    electron is from the nucleus, the less energy it
    takes to remove it
  • 1st IE decreases down the group
  • valence electron farther from nucleus
  • 1st IE generally increases across the period
  • effective nuclear charge increases

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59
Example 8.8 Choose the Atom in Each Pair with
the Higher First Ionization Energy
60
Irregularities in the Trend
  • Ionization Energy generally increases from left
    to right across a Period
  • except from 2A to 3A, 5A to 6A

Which is easier to remove an electron from B or
Be? Why?
Which is easier to remove an electron from N or
O? Why?
61
Irregularities in the First Ionization Energy
Trends
Be
Be
1s
2s
2p
1s
2s
2p
To ionize Be you must break up a full sublevel,
cost extra energy
When you ionize B you get a full sublevel, costs
less energy
62
Irregularities in the First Ionization Energy
Trends
To ionize N you must break up a half-full
sublevel, cost extra energy
When you ionize O you get a half-full sublevel,
costs less energy
63
Trends in Successive Ionization Energies
  • removal of each successive electron costs more
    energy
  • shrinkage in size due to having more protons than
    electrons
  • outer electrons closer to the nucleus, therefore
    harder to remove
  • regular increase in energy for each successive
    valence electron
  • large increase in energy when start removing core
    electrons

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Trends in Electron Affinity
  • energy released when an neutral atom gains an
    electron
  • gas state
  • M(g) 1e- ? M-1(g) EA
  • defined as exothermic (-), but may actually be
    endothermic ()
  • alkali earth metals noble gases endothermic,
    WHY?
  • more energy released (more -) the larger the EA
  • generally increases across period
  • becomes more negative from left to right
  • not absolute
  • lowest EA in period alkali earth metal or noble
    gas
  • highest EA in period halogen

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67
Metallic Character
  • Metals
  • malleable ductile
  • shiny, lusterous, reflect light
  • conduct heat and electricity
  • most oxides basic and ionic
  • form cations in solution
  • lose electrons in reactions - oxidized
  • Nonmetals
  • brittle in solid state
  • dull
  • electrical and thermal insulators
  • most oxides are acidic and molecular
  • form anions and polyatomic anions
  • gain electrons in reactions - reduced
  • metallic character increases left
  • metallic character increase down

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70
Example 8.9 Choose the More Metallic Element
in Each Pair
71
Trends in the Alkali Metals
  • atomic radius increases down the column
  • ionization energy decreases down the column
  • very low ionization energies
  • good reducing agents, easy to oxidize
  • very reactive, not found uncombined in nature
  • react with nonmetals to form salts
  • compounds generally soluble in water ? found in
    seawater
  • electron affinity decreases down the column
  • melting point decreases down the column
  • all very low MP for metals
  • density increases down the column
  • except K
  • in general, the increase in mass is greater than
    the increase in volume

72
2 Na(s) 2 H2O(l) ? 2 NaOH(aq) H2(g)
73
Trends in the Halogens
  • atomic radius increases down the column
  • ionization energy decreases down the column
  • very high electron affinities
  • good oxidizing agents, easy to reduce
  • very reactive, not found uncombined in nature
  • react with metals to form salts
  • compounds generally soluble in water ? found in
    seawater
  • reactivity increases down the column
  • react with hydrogen to form HX, acids
  • melting point and boiling point increases down
    the column
  • density increases down the column
  • in general, the increase in mass is greater than
    the increase in volume

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Example 8.10 Write a balanced chemical reaction
for the following.
  • reaction between potassium metal and bromine gas
  • K(s) Br2(g) ?
  • K(s) Br2(g) ? K Br?
  • 2 K(s) Br2(g) ? 2 KBr(s)
  • (ionic compounds are all solids at room
    temperature)

76
Example 8.10 Write a balanced chemical reaction
for the following.
  • reaction between rubidium metal and liquid water
  • Rb(s) H2O(l) ?
  • Rb(s) H2O(l) ? Rb(aq) OH?(aq) H2(g)
  • 2 Rb(s) 2 H2O(l) ? 2 Rb(aq) 2 OH?(aq)
    H2(g)
  • (alkali metal ionic compounds are soluble in
    water)

77
Example 8.10 Write a balanced chemical reaction
for the following.
  • reaction between chlorine gas and solid iodine
  • Cl2(g) I2(s) ?
  • Cl2(g) I2(s) ? ICl
  • write the halogen lower in the column first
  • assume 11 ratio, though others also exist
  • 2 Cl2(g) I2(s) ? 2 ICl(g)
  • (molecular compounds found in all states at room
    temperature)

78
Trends in the Noble Gases
  • atomic radius increases down the column
  • ionization energy decreases down the column
  • very high IE
  • very unreactive
  • only found uncombined in nature
  • used as inert atmosphere when reactions with
    other gases would be undersirable
  • melting point and boiling point increases down
    the column
  • all gases at room temperature
  • very low boiling points
  • density increases down the column
  • in general, the increase in mass is greater than
    the increase in volume

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