Title: WHAT IS SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
1WHAT IS SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY ?
2Introduction
- Human beings do not live in isolation
- We have always found ways of living with each
other - We function together in groups
- Tried to persuade others of our views
- Followed or rebelled against authority
- Found ways to resolve conflicts
- Help each other
- Hurt each other
3Introduction
- Provides tools for understanding everyday events.
- Understand why people act the way they do.
- Helps to make sense of daily interactions
- Friendships
- Love relationships
- Interactions at work and performance at school
4- Social psychologists do not just speculate about
social behaviour - They use scientific methods that are carefully
designed and executed to help explain complex
uncertain issues
5- Social Psychology is the scientific field that
seeks to understand the nature and causes of
individual behaviour in social situations.
Baron, R Byrne, D (1991) - The scientific study of the way individuals'
thoughts, feelings, and behaviours are influenced
by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of
others. Gordon Allport (1985) - Social Psychology is the scientific study of how
peoples thought, feelings, and actions are
affected by others. Robert Feldman (2001)
6The Sociohistorical Perspective
- Has two main features
- Examines the social, cultural and historical
context in which social psychological phenomena
occurs - Has interest in a broad range of contemporary and
historical events
7Social psychology and other disciplines
- Sociology, Psychology and Social Psychology
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8Social psychology and other disciplines
- Social psychology the field that seeks to
understand and explain social behaviour - How people think and act in relation to others
- There are other disciplines that are also
interested in individuals thoughts and actions.
Individually as well as group settings
9Social psychology and other disciplines
- Social psychology is similar, and it also differs
from psychology and sociology - Other fields such as biology, anthropology and
history are in some ways similar and different to
this field of study
10Social psychology and other disciplines
- Let us look at the different approaches in
answering the question - Why do groups of people, including nations
display hostility towards another? - For the biologists this does not reside in our
social situations but in our genetic structure - Developmental psychologists holds the view that
we have an inborn fear of strangers and this
become one of our survival mechanisms.
11Social psychology and other disciplines
- Similarly anthropologists have documented that
some tribal societies are suspicious of strangers
and may even attempt to kill them. - Personality psychologists believe that is a
characteristic of the individual and that this
individual carries this trait to situations. - The social psychologists looks at the individual
in the social situation. They examine the forces
in both the individual and the situation that
leads to that outcome.
12Social psychology and other disciplines
- The psychologist would focus on the role of the
individual - The sociologists are more concerned more so with
larger groups and systems in society. The
sociologists in looking at violence would study
the development of gangs. - The historian takes on a much broader view than
the sociologists. They focus on the interplay of
a number of factors such as economics, political,
technological trends.
13- Lindesmith and Strauss (1968)
- Social psychology is concerned with the
behaviour and psychological processes of
individuals who occupy positions in social
structures, organizations, and groups. - Focused on explaining the behaviour of
individuals as it is controlled, influenced, or
limited by the social environment. - It is also concerned with the manner in which the
behaviour of individuals reacts upon, shapes and
alters social structures and enters into the
functioning of groups.
14A main goal of social psychology is to
- Understand and predict behaviour
- It helps to answer the question WHY?
- The social psychological perspectives
- 1. Focus on the situation and,
- 2. the individual in the context of the group.
15Social psychology
- Social psychology recognizes that an individual
is both a psychological and a social being and as
such it refers to - Situations
- Variability and
- Changeability
16THE SITUATION
- Social encounters do not occur in open,
featureless settings, but in busy physical
environments that contribute their own
remarkable influence on our behaviours.
(Feldman, 2001) - Apart from these existences however, the person
can also be a social psychological being
contingent on the situation he/she find himself
in.
17Variability
- Social psychologists focus on variability in
behaviour rather than stability in behaviour in a
situation. They also tend to analyze the
capacities for different types of group behaviour
in these situations. - In short, social psychology studies the
variability of behaviour and interaction of
individuals in the situational context given
their social and psychological consistencies.
18Changeability
- Social psychology reminds sociology that although
structures, institutions and patterns exist,
these have been created by individual thought,
emotion and behaviour, and therefore social life
can be changed by these very same individual
characteristics. - Social psychology reminds the psychologists that
the individual who thinks himself separate from
others is very much affected by groups in his
thoughts, feelings and behaviour.
19SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
- Social psychology is a branch of psychology that
studies individuals in the social context. - It attempts to provide a framework within which
to understand the interactions between people.
20Factors that impact on the social behaviour and
thought of individuals
- The actions and characteristics of others
- Cognitive process to understand individuals
behaviour in social situations we must understand
their thoughts about the given situation - Environmental variables the impact of the
physical world. Physical environment influence
us. - Cultural context
- Biological factors our preferences, behaviours,
emotional reactions and attitudes are influence
by our biological inheritance.
21AREAS OF STUDY
- Focus- Influence of Social Factor on the
individual. - Topics
- Judging others,
- Stereotypes
- Self- presentation
- Health
22- Focus- Social Interaction between and among
people - Topics
- Liking and loving
- Interpersonal relationships
- Aggression and helping
- Attitudes and persuasion
23- Focus- Group Processes
- Topics
- Conformity
- Jury Behaviour
- Politics
- Organizations
- Culture
24- We do not live out our lives in isolation
rather we are enmeshed in a complex social world
that continually influences us in many ways.
(Feldman 2001)
25The TWO social psychologies
- As a discipline, it emerged out of two fields
Sociology and Psychology and so both areas have
different influences and emphases on the
discipline that we are now concerned with. - So they spoke of the TWO SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGIES
- Sociological Social psychology and,
- Psychological Social psychology
- proposed by Walter Stephan and Cookie Stephan
(1990)
26The Three Faces of Social PsychologyJames
House in 1977
27 Types of social psychology Â
- PSYCHOLOGICAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
- SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND PERSONALITY
- SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
28PSYCHOLOGICAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSP)
- The emphasis is on social cognition (thoughts)
and social influences i.e. the individuals
behaviour is a function of perceived social
stimuli. - Explores social cognition, affect and behaviour
at the individual level i.e. the effect current
social institutions have on perceptions,
feelings, behaviour. They are also concerned with
attitude formation as influenced by the social
environment.
29- Studies behaviour in simplified or controlled
social settings, usually varying one or more
factors in the setting. - Some work in PSP is derived from social learning
theory, exchange theory, and role theory. PSP
counts psychoanalytic theory, learning theory,
and field theory among its many intellectual
roots.
30Personality and Social Structure
- This approach insists that the individual and
the society are interdependent. Social structure
is the underlying framework of society, the
regularity in patterns of relationships in a
society. - Personality and social structure perspectives
deals with the macro- social processes i.e.
relationships between the micro- social
individual characteristics AND macro- social
characteristics of society.
31- Personality and social structure- look at the
links between the individual and the society.
They employ a variety of social psychological
theories in their research, such as role theory
or exchange theory. They also use theories from
other areas of sociology and mini- theories that
apply to a given topic.
32SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
- Herbert Blumer (1900-1987) describes the
characteristics of the approach as - Human interaction
- Interpretation or definition rather than mere
reaction - Response based on meaning
- Use of symbols, and
- Interpretation between stimulus and response
33The core principles
- Blummer came up with three core principles
- 1. meaning we act towards people and things
based on the meaning that we give them. - 2. language a means by which to negotiate
meanings through symbols. - 3. thought modifies each individuals
interpretation of symbols.
34- Symbolic interactionism is a sociologically
oriented theory that assumes individuals
conception of self develops as they interpret and
selectively internalize others symbolic
gestures. (Forsyth, 1995) - Symbolic interactionism focuses on the social
construction of reality or in other words how
meanings are subjectively defined rather than
objectively defined. - Meanings for the symbolic interactionist are
relative and negotiable. Hence social
interactionists study the varying perceptions of
the same situation held by varying groups and
individuals.
35- Focuses on a micro- social processes i.e. events
concerning individuals and small groups (self,
socialization, language, roles, etc.). - Symbolic interactionists think individuals should
be studied in their natural settings. Uses more
qualitative methods. - The symbolic interactionist focuses on the social
construction of reality meaning is determined
through social interaction.
36Kurt Lewin
- Soldier in German Army during World War 1
- Notice that as he came closer to the battlefield,
his view of the world changed - The once beautiful flowers and beckoning forest
now become boulders to hide behind and gullies
from which he could ambush enemies
37- Therefore held the notion that a persons
perception of the world is influenced by what he
or she has to do with the situation - Individuals with different needs and tasks would
come to see the same situation differently - Lewin believed that often times we fail to
acknowledge the situational factors when we try
to explain why people behave the way they do
38Kurt Lewin interactionism
- Interactionism is a general conceptual
orientation that assumes each persons behaviour
is a function of his or her personal qualities,
the nature of the situation, and the interaction
of these personal qualities with factors present
in the particular situation. - This is represented by Lewins formula B
f(P,E) - Behaviour is a function of person and the
environment. - We must also think about the interaction between
the person and the environment as a factor that
can influence the eventual behaviour.
39Closer look at Situation
- Situation comprises all influences on behaviour
that is external to the individual - It maybe any aspect of the physical and or social
environment- the presence of people real or
imagined - Situations can work on us indirectly and can
modify our behaviour without us being aware of it
40Closer look at Individual Characteristics
- Consist of anything internal
- This include sex, age, race or ethnicity,
personality characteristics, attitudes, self
concept, ways of thinking
41Expanding Lewins Model
- Both the individual and situation characteristic
influences how we process information - Our evaluation of the social situation does not
lead to immediate overt behaviour, it is our
evaluation of the situation that forms the
behavioural intention - Because we form a behavioural intention does not
mean that we will act on the intention - Our analysis of the situation does not end with
one intentions, we are constantly modifying our
intentions and reassessing the situation - Our behaviour can influence the social
environment and probably cause changes in the
behaviour of others
42- THEORIES IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
43SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES FOR DISCUSSION
- Role theory
- The social self
- Attraction and love
- Social cognition
- Attribution
- Attitude
- Social influence
- Groups
44- ROLE THEORY
- Role theory states that the behaviour of
individuals is affected by the roles they occupy. - A theory based on the belief that roles define us
and our self-concept and shape our behaviour.
45TYPES OF ROLES
- ASCRIBED ROLES- These are the expectations
associated with statuses that people are born
into or that are thrust on them without any
effort or desire on their parts, for example, sex
roles, age roles, caste roles etc. - ACHIEVED ROLES- These are the expectations that
are associated with statuses the individual
assumes after some effort or achievement, for
example, occupational roles, achieved social
roles, for instance a friend. - COMPLIMENTARY ROLES- Some roles require
complementary roles. For example, the role of
father requires someone else to fill the
complementary role of son. The role of wife
requires the role of husband.
46- MULTIPLE ROLES
- Multiple selves
- Saturated self
47ROLE CONFLICT
- Because people occupy many different roles, role
conflict may occur. - Role conflict is a situation in which a person is
expected to perform in two or more roles that
conflict each other. - One type of role conflict is role overload,
another occurs because separate roles are not
compatible.
48THE SOCIAL SELF
49The nature of self
- Who am I?
- A structure that contains the organized and
stable contents of ones personal experiences
(Schlenker, 1987) - The self is me- the sum of what I am
- The self is an actor, guiding and regulating our
thoughts, feelings and actions - It therefore has a number of components
cognitive structure, evaluative and emotional and
a congruence component
50DEFINITIONS OF THE SELF
- There are a number of ways that we think about
the self. - SELF- CONCEPT
- SELF- ESTEEM
- SELF- EFFICACY
- Two of the most widely used are self- concept and
self- esteem.
51Components of self- concept
- All ideas, thoughts and information we have of
ourselves. - Body image
- Self- esteem
- Personal identity
- Role performance
52Components of self- concept
- There are certain ideas and beliefs about
ourselves that will be more dominant than others - Private self the thought we have about
ourselves- I am an honest person - Public self what we present to others people
think I am an honest person. - Collective self how we think specific others
such as family, friends, co-workersthink of us.-
in my family I am considered responsible,
53Question for discussion
- How does culture impact on your sense of self?
- Do you think that in our setting we place more
emphasis on the public self than the private self - How does this differ from the American society
- Do you think that individuals in cultures that
emphasize the collective self are more likely to
be the focus of attention in social interaction?
54Culture and self
- Private self societies place more emphasis on
self-fulfillment at the expense of communal
relationships, for example the American society. - Collective self societies are more concerned with
meeting shared obligations and helping others,
for example the Japanese or Haitian society.
55SELF THEORIES
- Historical notions of the self- William James
-
- Looking Glass Self- Charles Horton Cooley
- Role Taking Theory- George Herbert Mead
- Dramaturgical Model- Erving Goffman
56How do we know self?
- The self is a complex process of gaining self-
awareness. - We develop a concept of who we are through our
interaction with others, and shape the image we
choose to convey to others. - There are three factors that help us to form our
self-concept - 1. how other people react to us.
- 2. the comparisons we make with other people
- 3. observation of our own behaviour
- It is through socialization that we become a
consistent and recognizable person acquiring the
physical, mental and social skills needed for
survival in society. - The self is not present at birth it arises in
social experience.
57WILLIAM JAMES
- James does not have a developmental view of the
self. - For James the social self develops through the
interaction of the I and the ME. - I- refers to the subjective self spontaneous,
energizing and creative - ME- refers to the objective self an organized
set of attitudes and expectations common to the
social group - James viewed the self as an object of awareness
consisting of three regions (spiritual me, social
me, material me) - He asserted that our sense of self is based on 2
components- I ME
58SELF I ME
OBJECT KNOWN SELF- CONCEPT
ME
SUBJECT KNOWER SELF- AWARENESS/ consciousness
I
59Self- Concept- ME
SELF
Self- Awareness- I
60SELF
Social and Personal Identity and image
Personal and social evaluation and esteem
61- There are as many social mes as there are
distinct groups of individuals about whose
opinion we care. - Â DEFINITONS OF ME
- -Â Â Spiritual me personality, values and motives
- -Â Â Social me recognition we get from others
- -Â Â Material me body, valued possessions and
loved ones -
62GEORGE HERBERT MEAD ROLE TAKING THEORY
- Mead believes we assume the role of significant
others and respond to the expectations of the
generalized other (society as a whole). - For Mead the social self develops through the
interaction of the I and the ME. - I- refers to the subjective self spontaneous
- ME- refers to the objective self as a social
object
63- His theory goes a step further to discuss three
stages of development - Preparatory stage- imitation takes place
- Play Stage- use of language (symbols) and taking
on one role at a time - Game Stage- Child is more cognitively complex.
There is an understanding of rules and the
child takes on roles of generalized others.
64CHARLES HORTON COOLEYTHE LOOKING GLASS SELF
- This is referring to a reflected self. Here sense
of self is derived from others. - We imagine how we appear to others and how those
others judge our appearance that we think we
present to them. - From this assessment we develop a self- concept
which may be favorable or unfavorable. - EACH TO EACH A LOOKING GLASS
- REFLECT THE OTHER THAT DOTH PASS.
65SELF PRESENTATION
- Most of us have vested interest in how others
perceive and evaluate us. - We have the need to protect our self-esteem and
maintain self-consistency. - We carefully consider how we are going to present
ourselves to others
66ERVING GOFFMAN(Presentation of self in everyday
life)
- Impression management behaviour designed to
control what others think of us. The goal is to
control our interactions with others so that we
get them to form the impression we desire. - Strategic self presentation -conscious and
deliberate efforts to shape other peoples
impressions in order to gain power, influence
sympathy or approval. - Self monitoring the tendency to use cues from
other peoples self presentations in controlling
ones own self presentations. Looks at self
presentation according to the demands of the
situation.
67- Erving Goffman developed this theory based on a
dramaturgical model, which uses the theater as a
metaphor for social life - We very often practice audience pleasing
(behavior that is designed to make an audience
feel good) and self-construction (self
presentation meant to corroborate our own view of
ourselves).
68- On stage, the actors present certain aspects of
self to each other, - Front-stage refers to when you are on, that
is when you are actively presenting a particular
self to others so as to create or maintain a
certain impression. - Backstage on the other hand, is when you are
not actively managing or creating a particular
impression. - Goffman says that we become uncomfortable when
people invade our backstage area because we are
unprepared.
69- Edward Jones suggest that we also are busy
seeking to control the social interaction process
by one of several strategies - Ingratiation this a deliberate effort to make a
favorable impression. They agree with you, say
nice things about you and offer help or favours. - Self-promotion an action designed to make a
person seem more competent than he really is. Try
to project an image of themselves as winners
goal is to gain your respect - Intimidation A strategy in which people
communicate an ability and inclination to induce
negative outcomes to others. They want to be seen
as tough and ruthlessnot to be messed with.
They use fear. - Â Â Â Â Â Â Â
- Exemplification A technique in which people
attempt to create the impression of moral
superiority and integrity - Â Â Â Â Â Â
- Supplication a means of self presentation that
consists of creating the impression that one is
needy, weak and dependent
70Other theories
- SOCIAL COMPARISON THEORY Leon Festinger (1954)
- Explores the notion that we also come to know
ourselves by - comparison to other people.
- Humans are motivated to evaluate themselves and
their beliefs/opinions. - "Am I good?
- "Am I correct?"
- When objective means of self-evaluation are not
available, we - evaluate ourselves and our opinions by comparison
with - others.
- We compare ourselves with similar others.
- We are attracted to situations where others are
similar to us.
71Social comparison theory cont.
- We also tend to compare with past and future
selves. - -future selves. ("actual" vs. "ought" "ideal"
selves) - Research has shown that people engage in upward
social comparison- in order to determine the
standard of excellence and downward social
comparison- to determine self- knowledge. This is
often done with someone similar to us
72- SOCIAL IDENTITY THEORY- Tajfel Turner (1979)
- According to this theory the social groups we
belong to are an integral part of our self-
concept. - Social Identity Theory recognizes the importance
of categorization - People have an innate and strong tendency to
mentally organize things and people (including
themselves) into categories - To the extent that we associate ourselves with
groups (i.e. categorize ourselves), we have
social identities - Social identities (via our group memberships) are
important aspects of how we define ourselves