Early Latin America

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• Early Latin America

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Latin America

• The incentive for European explores was wealth,
  social advancement, adventure, and prestige. In
  1492 Columbus reached the Caribbean and forever
  changed Latin America. By 1493 the first Spanish
  colony had been established.
• The societies first formed by colonists were ones
  of subjugation however the culture morphed into
  more complex and diverse societies that would
  eventually break free from colonial control and
  fight for their independence by the 18th century.

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Iberian Kingdoms (Spain and Portugal)

• The Spanish and Portuguese were at the frontier
  of the Mediterranean and as such were in both
  Christian and Muslim territory.
• If you remember your history from Spain. Spain
  was formed when Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella
  from Castile wed. The two sought to unite their
  diverse kingdoms by many reforms including the
  Reconquista which expelled Moors and Jews from
  Spain making it one Christian kingdom. In 1492,
  Granada, the last Muslim kingdom was conquered by
  Spain during the Reconquista. This unification
  process gave the monarchs a chance to support
  another goal increased access to Asia goods.
  Thus Columbus was supported in his quest for
  Asian markets.
• After conquest, Spain gave land and labor grants
  (encomiendas) to good Spaniards willing to fight
  for the mother country. These plantations would
  produce raw materials for the mother country. The
  Spanish and Portuguese were already used to
  African slavery from their experience in
  sub-Saharan African trade. There were already
  African slaves present in the Iberian peninsula!
  Therefore, this labor system seemed like a good
  choice once so many of the Native population of
  the Americas began to die off.
• Chronology
• Conquest 1492-1570 (set administration and
  economy of New World)
• Consolidation/ Maturity 1570-1700 (colonial
  institutions and society formed)
• Reform/ Reorganization 18th century (seeds of
  dissent and revolt)

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Caribbean Crucible/ Experiment

• The Caribbean became the great experiment for the
  Spanish. They conquered islands and set up
  colonies and established relationships with the
  native population. They literally tested out
  various concepts for maintaining rule and gain
  from the land all that was possible.
• 1492 Caribbean and island of Hispaniola
  discovered, 1493 -1st colony, 1513 Panama and
  other islands conquered and colonized!
• The encomienda system was first established
  during the Caribbean phase. The Spaniards given
  these labor grants and could tax or use the
  natives on the land as workers. This system and
  contact led to massive population declines which
  led to the islands becoming something of a
  colonial backwater until it was seen they would
  be effective for sugar. Then slaves were brought
  to the Caribbean to fill the labor demands of the
  great sugar plantations.
• Good things-new markets and towns and cities laid
  out on nice grid patterns unlike Europe. (like
  Mohenjo-Daro in India) Spain established a
  colonial bureaucracy with governors and various
  institutions!
• The Church became very important and priests came
  over on mission trips Bartolome de la Casas
• By the time that Mexico (Aztecs by Cortes) and
  Peru (Incas by Pizarro) were conquered the
  colonial system of Latin America was already
  established by the Spanish with their exploits in
  the Caribbean!

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Paths to Conquest

• Spanish conquered 2 continents with millions of
  people in less than 2 centuries with small forces
  of only 50-500 Spaniards! (due to disease,
  working with native allies, better technology,
  and manipulation)
• Crown would give approval for various individual
  incentives
• Mexico/ Aztecs Cortes 1519 expedition and by
  1521 he had killed Moctezuma II and captured
  Tenochtitlan (Mexico City). By 1535 most of
  central Mexico was under Spains control. (Aztecs
  had so many enemies due to tribute and human
  sacrifice)
• Peru/ Incas 1532 Pizarro and by 1533 Cuzco was
  captured and by 1540 Peru was under Spanish
  control (Incas were in the middle of a civil war
  over succession)
• In spite Spanish control there were still much
  resistance to Spanish rule Buenos Aires!
• Franciso Vazquez de Coronado cities of gold
  Kansas (US)

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God in the sky, the king of Spain, and me here

• The Spanish crown received 1/5 of all treasure
  from New Spain (conquered lands). Men got reward
  on a share basis with men with horses or special
  skills getting double shares. Many times more
  reward was based on nepotism with their family
  and friends getting more of the booty. Many of
  the conquistadors were in fact not soldiers
  (female Ines Suarez in Chile)!!!
• By 1570 conquest was coming to an end and
  bureaucrats, merchants, and colonists came and
  New Spain became a colony with functioning law
  courts and viceroys

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Morality of Conquest

• 1548 Juan Gines de Sepulveda justified
  subjugation because the Spanish were freeing the
  natives from their unjust lords and bring them to
  salvation. Sepulveda argued that the Indians were
  not human and were people that were born to
  serve
• Father Bartolome de Las Casas former conqueror
  and encomendero, Dominican priest, and bishop of
  Chiapas was a critic of Spanish brutality and the
  opposite opinion to Sepulveda. He believed the
  natives rational and not ever done harm to
  Christians so the conquest of their lands was
  unjustified!
• In 1550 the crown suspended all conquests and
  held a special commission to hear arguments for
  and against Sepulveda. Debate was mixed because
  the crown did have reasons to back Casas due to
  the dangerous ambitions of the Spanish
  conquerors! Sepulvedas book was censored, but
  the conquest continued!!! The period of conquest
  was really only until about 1570 so the concern
  literally came too little to late!

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Destruction of the Americas

• Population decline (slavery, disease, cruelty,
  and destruction of native societies)
• Mexico native population of 25 million in 1519
  and by 1580 the population was less than 2
  million!!!
• Peru native population of 10 million by 1590 the
  population was only about 1.5 million!!!
• This overall led to the movement away from the
  encomienda system with its labor grants to taking
  land from natives and starting haciendas and the
  mita system
• Spaniards would keep aspects of native culture
  that support them and change those that did not.
  However, in spite of the Spanish and high decline
  of power and population the native were able to
  retain much of their culture and even adopted
  parts of Spanish culture that served their needs
  (law)
• By the 16th century the Spanish crown banned
  enslaving native other than POWs.

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• Mita system In many native societies commoners
  had to pay a special tax/ tribute of either labor
  or goods.
• By 1620 the encomienda system was starting to be
  banned by the crown. This is because the crown
  was worried about the rise of a new nobility in
  the Americas. Colonists turned to grants of land
  rather than grants of labor as the basis of
  wealth.
• The mita system was then used for public projects
  like buildings and mining (much abuse took place
  ? )
• By 1600 many natives started to flee their
  villages to escape the mita. They moved to cities
  which led to the wage labor system developing in
  the Americas (mines and farms).
• Native America culture demonstrated great
  resiliency in the face of Spanish institutions
  and forms, adopting and modifying them to
  indigenous ways!

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Colonial Economies

• Basis for the economy was mining and agriculture!
  
• Mining and silver of the colonial economy
• Real riches came during the post-conquest period
  of heavy mining!!!
• 1545-1565 Mexico and Peru silver discoveries
  Potosi (Peru) 80 of all Peru silver with 160,000
  workers!
• 1st Indian slaves
• 2nd Encomienda system
• 3rd labor drafts and wage workers
• Techniques for mining came 1st from natives and
  then from Europe. Importance of mercury in
  mining! Huancavelica, Peru Mercury find! Mining
  stimulated other parts of the economy supported
  ranches!
• Spanish law subsoil rights to crown, but mines
  and processing plants were owned by individuals
  with with 1/5 of production going to the crown

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Villages/ Shipping

• Farming Spanish ranches
• Landownership became very important and they way
  to riches. Large family estates, haciendas,
  started to spring up. The aristocracy of New
  Spain was built on this system. Workers on
  haciendas were usually natives or mix of Native/
  European
• America was self-sufficient, but did important
  luxury items
• Spain only allowed the New World to take with it
  to protective its economy (mercantilism). All New
  World trade took place through Seville or Cadiz,
  Spain. There was a board of trade which
  controlled the trade. Consulado (merchant guild)
  controlled the goods shipped and sliver received.
  They keep prices pretty high in the colonies!
• Developed convoy system where 2 fleets traveled
  together to protect themselves against other
  countries and pirates! The ships were galleons
  (heavily armed) and met in the Caribbean to
  exchange goods. There were fortified ports like
  in Havana, Cuba, coast guard fleets to protect
  shipping, galleons, and convoys!

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Spain

• Spain used the silver from New Spain to
• 1 pay for their many wars!
• 2 pay for debts
• 3 pay for Chinese goods like silk
• This flooding of silver led to inflation in Spain
  and in Europe! the poverty of Spain resulted
  from the discovery of the Indies Sancho de
  Moncada

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Ruling an Empire

• Spain controlled New Spain via bureaucratic
  system
• God King Viceroys
• Papal Grant 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas - Brazil
  to Portugal and rest to Spain.
• The King ruled via the Council of the Indies in
  Spain which gave advice and passed laws for New
  Spain!
• 2 viceroyalities (Mexico City and Lima) with
  viceroys or high ranking nobles who were the
  direct representatives of the King and ruled over
  the lands. The viceroys had military,
  legislative, and even judicial powers!
• The New World was then subdivided into 10
  judicial divisions controlled by superior courts
  (audiencias) staffed by professional royal
  magistrates who made law and applied it
• Local level royally appointed magistrates
  applied laws, collected taxes, and assigned work
  of Natives (bended laws). Below them were many
  minor officials
• Bureaucratic system core was letrados or
  university trained lawyers. By 1681 the laws of
  New Spain were codified (Recopilacion)

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Catholic Church

• Franciscans, Dominicans, and Jesuits carried out
  many of the conversions of Natives and
  established Churches
• The pope stated the primary reason for Spains
  rule was to Christianize the people so many tried
  to uphold this
• Some priests became experts in native language
  and histories. Diego de Landa, Bishop of Yucatan
  admired Maya culture but detested the religion so
  much that he burned all their ancient books and
  tortured anyone he suspected of backsliding from
  Christianity
• Soon missionaries led to the formal Catholic
  Church structure and parishes and bishoprics with
  even archbishops in large cities!
• Church influenced intellectual life via
  architecture, many books were religious, printing
  press, and universities started by clergy. Sor
  Juana Ines de la Cruz- nun who was a poet,
  thinker, author, and musician. She was
  celebrated, but eventually her superiors asked
  her to focus on only spiritual matters

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Brazil Plantation Colony

• 1500 Pedro Alvares Cabral led an expedition to
  India and stopped in Brazil. The Portuguese
  government paid little attention to Brazil other
  than its dyewood trees. For about 30 years they
  took no action until the French started to
  pressure them. They cleared rivals and began
  settlement.
• Minor noble were given land along the coast to
  colonize and develop (capitaincies). They had
  feudal like powers but lacked the capital
  necessary for commercial development. Some had
  problems with natives, but overall relations were
  peaceful.
• In 1549 king sent a governor general and other
  officials to create a royal capital in Salvador.
  Missionaries soon left. By 1600 much native
  resistance was broken by the military,
  missionaries, and disease.
• Growth of sugar plantations with support of
  African slaves began

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Sugar and Slaves

• Brazil leading sugar producer. the cane had to be
  cut and then processed (pressed). The juices were
  heated to form sugar. The process required much
  capital and labor! Turned to African slaves. By
  the end of the 17th century 150,000 slaves were
  in Brazil that made up ½ of the population of the
  nation.
• Brazil became the 1st great plantation colony and
  set a model for others
• Hierarchy of plantation system white planter
  families at the top with African slaves at the
  bottom. There were mixed people who were artisans
  or small farmers as well
• Portugal also set up the rule of Brazil like
  Spain with a bureaucratic system with a governor
  general who ruled from Salvador and local
  governors (capitaincy). They worked independently
  and reported directly to a council in Portugal.
  Royal official were trained in law like Spain.
  Portugal unlike Spain had posts outside of the
  Americas in Asia and Africa! Brazil was dependent
  on Portugal economically and intellectual unlike
  New Spain!
• The Catholic Church sent missionaries, Jesuits.
  They had cattle and sugar plantation which
  supported the construction of various churches
  and schools.

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Brazils Golden Age

• For 60 years the Habsburg kings of Spain also
  ruled Portugal (1580-1640). During this time
  there was much cooperation between Spain and
  Portugal as you can imagine.
• 1630-1654 as part of a global struggle against
  Spain, the Dutch seized some of Brazil and its
  sugar!!! They were expelled the same year
• By the 1680s the English, Dutch, and French had
  established sugar plantations in the Caribbean
  which drove down sugar prices and up the price of
  African slaves
• Brazil lost its power over the sugar trade. They
  began to explore the country more led by
  Paulisas. They explored and discovered gold
  mines. This led to a boom and a gold rush!
  1735-1760 3 tons of gold a year were mined making
  Brazil the greatest source of gold in the West.
  The government collected high taxes to control
  the population. Native population suffered as
  they moved deeper into Brazil
• Rio do Janeiro grew as the closest city to the
  mines and ports. It became the capital in 1763!
• Again there was a hierarchy (white vs. Africa
  slaves)

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Multiracial Societies

• Mix of Indians, Europeans, and Africans created
  hierarchies of masters, servants, and Christians
  and pagans
• Mixed groups came from the sexual exploitation of
  Indian and African women. With few European
  women, especially in frontier areas men turned to
  locals as wives, concubines/ mistresses and
  servants. This resulted in a large mixed
  population. Indian and European mestizo while
  African and European mulattos. They were stuck
  in 2 different worlds and never fully accepted as
  equals but higher than natives.
• Wealth and occupation traditional hierarchies,
  but in the Americas new distinctions of race and
  birth became important sociedad de castas with
  Europeans at the top and black slaves or natives
  at the bottom (mixed in the middle)
• (new genre of painting just to ID people)
• People of mixed origins castas (kept
  increasing!)
• Some called themselves mesizo b/c they could
  speak Spanish

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• Whites were always gentleman but not always
  necessarily wealthy. New distinction within
  whites, peninsulares (those born in Spain) vs.
  Creoles (those born in the New World). Were seen
  suspect by peninsulares b/c of the possibility of
  mestizo or illegitimacy! Were wealthy and second
  to peninsulares in rank. Creoles developed their
  own identities which led to the movement for
  independence
• Gender and age under authority of father until
  25. Marriages arranged with dowry. Wealthy women
  unmarried young were sent to convents. Widows
  inherited estates and typically ran them.

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Reforms of 18th century

• New intellectual ideas spread from Europe to the
  New World. This led to reforms (typically
  economic, educational, and philosophical). New
  associations like amigos del pais.
• Colonial system had become outdated by the 18th
  century with Spains declining population,
  increasing debts, wars, and revolts. With France,
  Holland, and England become increasing rivals.
  (Protestant vs. Catholic)
• Buccaneers started to raid (no allegiance to any
  country!) and took from Spain
• The Caribbean islands were taken by other
  nations. England took Jamaica in 1654 while
  France took Hispaniola (Haiti) in 1697. (Other
  island fell too and many turned to sugar)
• Economy began to fail with fleets not coming as
  much with silver payments declining. More
  self-sufficient
• Politically, government got weaker with more
  local aristocrats governing (corruption)

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Spain and economy

• 1702-1713 King Charles II of Spain died without a
  heir. Nations started fighting for Spain and
  claiming the right to rule. Two big contenders
  were Philip of Anjou of the Bourbon family
  (grandson of Louis XIV) and the son of the king
  of Austria. The treaty of Utrecht (1713) ended
  the war with Philip of Anjou on the throne of
  Spain. Legally, Philip opened up Spain to French
  and even to some extend English trade (in
  Seville)!
• Groups or institutions that opposed these reforms
  were punished or expelled like the Jesuits in
  1767 (1759 from Portugal)
• Spanish Bourbon monarchs like Charles III worked
  to reform Spain to make the state more efficient
  and stronger and better able to direct the
  economy. French bureaucratic models were followed
  and taxation tightened. New viceroyalties were
  created with royal investigators like Jose de
  Galvez who looked for abuses and then helped to
  reform them. Spain moved to end the corregidores
  (local magistrates) and replaced by the French
  system of intendants. Due to loses by other
  nations like England ( 7 Years War Spain allied
  with France) with Florida and Cuba Spain began to
  establish regular troops with even local militia
• Bourbon reforms led to government monopolies of
  industries like tobacco and gunpowder. Companies
  were given granted if they developed the
  economies of the regions they working within

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• These liberal regulations led to trade expanding
  in the Caribbean
• Negative side was that as goods from Europe
  became cheaper they competed with locally
  produced goods and many natives were unable to
  compete with the imports
• Short term reforms improved the Spanish
  government while the long term effects created
  dissatisfaction of elites in the Americas

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Pombal and Brazil

• Marquis of Pombal was the prime minister and led
  the reforms of Brazil along English techniques
  (expel Jesuits, no contraband, smuggling, no tax
  evasion, monopoly companies formed, new crops
  introduced, banned slavery in Portugal so more
  could be imported to Brazil! Reforms to
  strengthen the mother country like Spain.
• Pombals reforms led to a 20 year boom in Brazil

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Reforms, Reactions, Revolts

• Rapid population growth which led to more
  development and greater demand for American
  products (18th century boom)
• Changing government including tighter tax
  collecting, reformist policies, and taking powers
  from people led to increasing revolts like the
  Comunero Revolt of 1781 in Columbia occurred and
  were successful. A royal army and viceroy were
  overthrown and the rebels almost took the entire
  capital!
• Peru-Tupac Amaru led uprisings until his death
• Brazil- independence conspiracy and Tiradentes
  hanged!
• The various colonies had many similar complaints
  by being controlled and limited by their mother
  countries. The 18th century economic boom led to
  confidence as colonists sought to free themselves
  from rule. Yet the racial and social division of
  that society kept them divided and undercut their
  revolutionary movements.

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Latin Civilization and the World

• Within 3 centuries Spain and Portugal created
  very large American empires that supported them
  and were the basis of their power. They expanded
  the world economy and shipped mineral/ metals and
  crops. The colonies adopted the mother countries
  ways and policies / government were established
  to benefit the mother country not the colonies!
  This led to 19th century revolutionary movements
• Colonies were multiethnic and multiracial drawing
  on native, African, and European ideas
• Latin America although homogenous was quite
  diverse
• Russian and Iberian expansion similar (maritime
  vs. overland)