HIST 207

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Title: HIST 207

1

HIST 207 MODERN HISTORY KOÇ UNIVERSITY PROF.
ZAFER TOPRAK www.ata.boun.edu.tr
2

GLOBAL HISTORY
The course puts the phenomenon of globalization
into historical perspective and introduces
students to the big themes and questions that
arise from global perspectives on the past.
It covers globalization as a set of processes
that operate simultaneously and unevenly on
several historical levels and in various
dimensions.

Emphasis is given to the political, economic,
social, and cultural changes that transformed
Europe during the twentieth century. Europe has
been characterized by extraordinary waves of
transformation
From colonialism / imperialism to decolonization,
alongside increasing cultural ethnic diversity
from division between capitalism and communism,
between dictatorship democracy, to a striking
convergence of socioeconomic political systems.

Course Requirements
Grading will be as follows
1) a) attendance 15
b) pop quizzes 15
2) mid-term exam 35
3) final exam 35
100

Week I February 4-6
Globalization a new phenomenon
Introductory lectures
Week II February 11-13
Overseas Expansion and Imperialism
Jürgen Osterhammel and Niels P. Petersson,
1750-1880 Imperialism, Industrialization, and
Free Trade, chapter in Globalization A Short
History, Princeton University Press, 2005, pp.
57-80.

Week III February 18-20
Overseas Expansion and Imperialism
A. G. Hopkins, Overseas Expansion, Imperialism,
and Empire, 1815-1914, chapter in Short Oxford
History of Europe The Nineteenth Century, (T. C.
W. Blanning, ed.), Oxford University Press, 2000,
pp. 210-240.

Week IV February 25-27
International Relations and the End of Empires
Rondo Cameron, Overview of the World Economy in
the Twentieth Century, chapter in A Concise
Economic History of the World, Oxford University
Press, 1991, pp.322-344.

Week V March 3-5
Politics and Economy in the First Half of the
20th Century
Jürgen Osterhammel and Niels P. Petersson,
1880-1945 Global Capitalism and Global Crises,
chapter in Globalization A Short History,
Princeton University Press, 2005, pp. 81-111.

Week VI March 10-12
The Dark Age in the Interwar Years
Rajnarayan Chandavarkan, Europe 1900-1945
Imperialism and the European Empires, chapter in
Short Oxford History of Europe Europe 1900-1945,
(Julian Jackson, ed.), Oxford University Press,
2002, pp. 138-172.

Week VII March 17-19
Deglobalization or Economic Disintegration
Rondo Cameron, International Economic
Disintegration, chapter in A Concise Economic
History of the World, Oxford University Press,
1991, pp.345-368.

Review Session
Mid-Term Exam
Week VIII March 24-26
Social Crisis in the Interwar Years
Robin W. Winks R. J. Q. Adams, Between the
Wars A Twenty-Year Crisis, chapter in Europe
Crisis and Conflict 1890-1945, Oxford University
Press, 2003, pp. 125-175.

Week IX March 31-April 2
Political Crisis Democracy versus
Authoritarianism / Totalitarianism
Robin W. Winks R. J. Q. Adams, The Democracies
and the Non-Western World, chapter in Europe
Crisis and Conflict 1890-1945, Oxford University
Press, 2003, pp. 176-208.
April 7-9 Spring Break

Week X April 14-16
Economy and Society in the Second Half of the
20th Century
Rondo Cameron, Rebuilding the World Economy,
chapter in A Concise Economic History of the
World, Oxford University Press, 1991, pp. 369-395.

Week XI April 21-23 (Holiday)
Globalizatan and the Cold War
Jürgen Osterhammel and Niels P. Petersson, 1945
to Mid-1970s Globalization Split in Two,
chapter in Globalization A Short History,
Princeton University Press, 2005, pp. 113-139.

Week XII April 28-30
From Cold War to Détente 1962-79
Anthony Best, Jussi M. Hanhimaki, Joseph A.
Maiolo, Kirsten E. Schulze, From Cold War to
Détente 1962-79, chapter in International
History of the Twentieth Century, London New
York, Routledge, 2004, 265-287.

Week XIII May 5-7
The Era of Globalization
Anthony Best, Jussi M. Hanhimaki, Joseph A.
Maiolo, Kirsten E. Schulze, The End of the Cold
War and the Brave New World 1980-2000, chapter
in International History of the Twentieth
Century, London New York, Routledge, 2004,
444-479.

Week XIV May 12-14
Reviews Session
FINAL EXAM

Globalisation is international integration. It
can be described as a process by which the people
of the world are unified into a single society.
Globalization refers to a multidimensional set of
social processes that create, multiply, stretch,
and intensify worldwide social interdependencies
exchanges while at the same time fostering in
people a growing awareness of deepening
connections between the local and the distant.

Globalization is an uneven process, meaning that
people living in various parts of the world are
affected very differently by this gigantic
transformation of social structures and cultural
zones.

One defining characteristic of the process
Movement towards greater interdependence
integration.
This process is a combination of economic,
technological, socio-cultural and political
forces.

Globalization compresses the time and space
aspects of social relations.
James Mittelman
Globalization can be defined as the
intensification of worldwide social relations
which link distant localities in such a way that
local happenings are shaped by events occurring
many miles away and vice versa.
Anthony Giddens

Scholars not only hold different views with
regard to proper definitions of globalization,
they also disagree on its scale, causation,
chronology, impact, trajectories, and policy
outcomes.
The word "globalization" has been used by
economists since 1981 however, its concepts did
not permeate popular consciousness until the
later half of the 1990s.

Various social scientists have tried to
demonstrate continuity between contemporary
trends of globalization and earlier periods.
Globalization is viewed as a centuries long
process, tracking the expansion of human
population and the growth of civilization, that
has accelerated dramatically in the past 50
years.

The global integration of humankind had its
beginnings under Portuguese auspices in the 15th
century.
The process of globalization had its origins in
Europe, through the Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch,
French, and English territorial and maritime
expansion into all habitable continents, and
included the discovery and colonization of the
New World.

Proto-globalization
Early forms of globalization existed during the
Roman Empire, the Parthian Empire, and the Han
Dynasty, when the silk road started in China,
reached the boundaries of the Parthian Empire and
continued onwards towards Rome.

The Islamic Golden Age is also an example, when
Muslim traders and explorers established an early
global economy across the Old World resulting in
a globalization of crops, trade, knowledge and
technology and later during the Mongol Empire,
when there was greater integration along the Silk
Road.

Globalization became a business phenomenon in the
17th century when was established.
The Dutch East India Company is described as the
first multinational corporation,

An important driver for globalization Sharing
risk through joint ownership
Because of the high risks involved with
international trade, The Dutch East India Company
became the first company in the world to share
risk and enable joint ownership through the
issuing of shares.

Liberalization in the 19th century is sometimes
called "The First Era of Globalization", a period
characterized by rapid growth in international
trade and investment, between the European
imperial powers, their colonies, and, later, the
United States.
An Era of Colonization - Imperialism
It was in this period that areas of sub-saharan
Africa and the Island Pacific were incorporated
into the world system.

The decades preceding the outbreak of World War I
witnessed an era of extensive globalization.
The first era of globalization during the 19th
century was the rapid growth of international
trade between the European imperial powers, the
European colonies, and the United States.

Belief in the superiority of their own nation
nationalism has supplied the mental enery
required for large-scale warfare.
The enormous productive capacities of the modern
state nation state have provided the material
means necessary to fight the total wars of the
last century.

The "First Era of Globalization" began to break
down at the beginning with the first World War,
and later collapsed during the gold standard
crisis in the late 1920s and early 1930s.
The Dark Age for humanity due to world wars.
After World War II, globalization was restarted
and was driven by major advances in technology,
which led to lower trading costs.

Globalization in the era since World War II was
first the result of planning by economists,
business interests, and politicians who
recognized the costs associated with
protectionism and declining international
economic integration.

Their work led to the Bretton Woods conference
(1944) and the founding of several international
institutions
intended to oversee the renewed processes of
globalization, promoting growth and managing
adverse consequences.
These were the International Bank for
Reconstruction and Development (the World Bank)
and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).

It has been facilitated by advances in technology
which have reduced the costs of trade, and trade
negotiation rounds,
originally under the auspices of General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which led
to a series of agreements to remove restrictions
on free trade.

Since World War II, barriers to international
trade have been considerably lowered through
international agreements - (GATT).
The Uruguay round (1984 to 1995) led to a treaty
to create the World Trade Organization (WTO), to
mediate trade disputes and set up a uniform
platform of trading.

Other bi- and multilateral trade agreements,
including sections of Europe's Maastricht Treaty
and the North American Free Trade Agreement
(NAFTA) have also been signed in pursuit of the
goal of reducing tariffs and barriers to trade.

The dramatic creation, expansion, and
acceleration of worldwide interdependencies
global exchanges that have occurred since the
early 1970s represent another quantum leap in the
history of globalization.

Particular initiatives carried out as a result of
GATT and the World Trade Organisation (WTO), for
which GATT is the foundation, have included

Promotion of free trade
a) Reduction or elimination of tariffs
construction of free trade zones with small or no
tariffs,
b) Reduced transportation costs, especially from
development of containerization for ocean
shipping,
c) Reduction or elimination of capital controls,
d) Reduction, elimination, or harmonization of
subsidies for local businesses,

Restriction of free trade
a) Harmonization of intellectual property laws
across the majority of states, with more
restrictions.
b) Supranational recognition of intellectual
property restrictions (e.g. patents granted by
China would be recognized in the United States)

The nature of these developments has been
criticized by many including Noam Chomsky who
states
... That enhances what's called "globalization,"
a term of propaganda used conventionally to refer
to a certain particular form of international
integration that is (not surprisingly) beneficial
to its designers Multinational corporations and
the powerful states to which they are closely
linked.

In the decades following World War II, even the
most conservative political parties in Europe and
the United States rejected the laissez-faire
ideas and instead embraced an extensive version
of state interventionism propagated by British
economist John Maynard Keynes, the architect of
the Bretton Woods system.
By the 1980s, however, British Prime Minister
Margaret Thatcher and US President Ronald Reagan
led the neoliberal revolution against
Keynesianism, consciously linking the notion of
globalization to the liberation of economies
around the world.

Concrete neoliberal measures include
1. Privatization of public enterprises
2. Deregulation of the economy
3. Liberalization of trade and industry
4. Massive tax cuts
5. Monetarist measures to keep inflation in
check, even at the risk of increasing
unemployment
6. Strict control on organized labour
7. The reduction of public expenditures,
particularly social spending
8. The down-sizing of government
9. The expansion of international markets
10. The removeal of controls on global financial
flows

The new neoliberal economic order received
further legitimation with the 1989-91 collapse of
communism in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe.
Since then, the three most significant
developments related to economic globalization
have been
The internationalization of trade and finance
The increasing power of transnational
corporations
c) The enhanced role of international economic
institutions like the IMF, the World Bank, and
the WTO.

Effects of globalization
Globalization has various aspects which affect
the world in several different ways such as
a) Industrial
b) Financial
c) Economic

Industrial (alias trans nationalization) -
emergence of worldwide production markets and
broader access to a range of foreign products for
consumers and companies

Financial - emergence of worldwide financial
markets and better access to external financing
for corporate, national and subnational borrowers

Economic - realization of a global common market,
based on the freedom of exchange of goods and
capital.

However, the following problems are noted
Poorer countries are sometimes at disadvantage
While it is true that globalization encourages
free trade among countries on an international
level, there are also negative consequences
because some countries try to save their national
markets.

The main export of poorer countries is usually
agricultural goods.
It is difficult for these countries to compete
with stronger countries that subsidize their own
farmers.
Because the farmers in the poorer countries
cannot compete, they are forced to sell their
crops at much lower price than what the market is
paying.

Exploitation of foreign impoverished workers
The deterioration of protections for weaker
nations by stronger industrialized powers has
resulted in the exploitation of the people in
those nations to become cheap labor.
Due to the lack of protections, companies from
powerful industrialized nations are able to force
workers to endure extremely long hours, unsafe
working conditions, and just enough salary to
keep them working.

The abundance of cheap labor is giving the
countries in power incentive not to rectify the
inequality between nations.
If these nations developed into industrialized
nations, the army of cheap labor would slowly
disappear alongside development.

With the world in this current state, it is
impossible for the exploited workers to escape
poverty.
It is true that the workers are free to leave
their jobs, but in many poorer countries, this
would mean starvation for the worker, and
possible even his/her family.

Shift from manufacturing to service work The low
cost of offshore workers have enticed
corporations to move production to foreign
countries.
The laid off unskilled workers are forced into
the service sector where wages and benefits are
low, but turnover is high. This has contributed
to the widening economic gap between skilled and
unskilled workers.

The loss of these jobs has also contributed
greatly to the slow decline of the middle class
which is a major factor in the increasing
economic inequality in the United States.
Families that were once part of the middle class
are forced into lower positions by massive
layoffs and outsourcing to another country.

This also means that people in the lower class
have a much harder time climbing out of poverty
because of the absence of the middle class as a
stepping stone.

The rise of contingent work
As globalization causes more and more jobs to be
shipped overseas, and the middle class declines,
there is less need for corporations to hire full
time employees.
Companies are less inclined to offer benefits
(health insurance, bonuses, vacation time, shares
in the company, and pensions), or reduce
benefits, to part time workers.

Most companies dont offer any benefits at all.
Even though most of the middle class workers
still have their jobs, the reality is that their
buying power has decreased due to decreased
benefits.
Job security is also a major issue with
contingent work.

Weakening of labor unions
The surplus in cheap labor coupled with an ever
growing number of companies in transition has
caused a weakening of labor unions in the United
States.
Unions loss their effectiveness when their
membership begins to decline.

As a result, unions hold less power over
corporations that are able to easily replace
workers, often for lower wages, and have the
option to not offer unionized jobs anymore.

Political Globalization
Political globalization refers to the
intensification and expansion of political
interrelations across the globe.
These processes raise an important set of
political issues pertaining to the principle of
state sovereignty, the growing impact of
intergovernmental organization, and the future
prospects for regional global governance.

Humans have organized their political differences
along territorial lines that generate a sense of
belonging to a particular nation-state in the
last few centuries.

This artificial division of planetary social
space into domestic and foreign spheres
corresponds to peoples collective identities
based on the creation of a commonus
unfamiliar them. demonizing the images of the
other.
The modern nation-state system has rested on
psycological foundadions cultural assumptions
that convey a sense of existential security and
historical continuity.

The origins of the modern nation-system can be
traced back to 17th-century political
developments in Europe.
The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 concluded a
series of religious wars among the main European
powers following the protestant Reformation.

Based on the newly formulated principles of
sovereignty territoriality, the new model of
self-contained, impersonal states challenged the
medieval mosaic of small polities.
with local and personal political power but
still subordinated to a larger imperial
authority.
transnational character of vast imperial
domains

The Westphalian model gradually strengthened a
new conception of international law based on the
principle that all states had an equal right to
self-determination.
The unified territoral areas constituted the
foundation for modernitys secular national
system of political power.
Absolutist kings in France and Prussia
Constitutional monarchs and republican leaders of
England and the Netherlands,

The centuries following the Peace of Westphalia
saw the further centralization of political
power, the expansion of state administration, the
development of professional diplomacy, and the
successful monopolization of the means of
coercion in the hands of the state.
States also provided the military means required
for the expansion of commerce, which, in turn,
contributed for the spread of the European form
of political rule around the globe.

The second half of the 18th century a double
revolution ushered in the modern world
The Industrial Revolutution starting in England
about 1760
The French Revolution of 1789 introduced a new
age of political order initially in Europe and
later throughout the world.
The industrial revolution required more than a
century to affect all the areas that are
productive industrial countries today.
However, The dynamics of state-building and
preindustrial colonialism fueled an early era of
globalization.

Durign the early modern period, the Europeans
managed to take control of the worlds seas,
although no one Europan power held a dominant
positition over its competitors.
The Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, English, ad
French, and even multinational pirate crews were
far superior to every other sea power.
European naval supremacy extended to all branches
of high-seas navigation exploration, commerce,
and warfare.

The ties between naval power and commercial
shipping were closer in Europe than they had ever
been in any civilization in history.
The role of navies acquired a completely new
dimension as instruments of the early modern
state.
Much of Europes innovative talent was spent o
perfecting naval navigation techniques and in
establishing and running such complex
organization as the British East India Company,
and the Royal Navy.

Once Europe ahd secured control of the high seas,
the stage was set for the rise of the most
dynamic economic sector in the 18th century.
Moreover, shipbuilding shipping became
important economic sectors each in its own right.
At first, military branch of seafaring was
subordinate in importance to commercial shipping

Around the middle of the 18th century, the
military branch emancipated itself from its
supporting role and became an instrument of a
form of politics unknown until then.
The strongest adversaries considered the entire
world to be a theater of war.
Large infantry units were shipped overseas.
Britain pioneered this new strategic concept.

British forces drove the French out of Canada,
fouth them and their indigeous allies in India,
attacked Manila and Havana, two of the wealthiest
cities in the Spanish colonial empire.
The same phenomenon repeated itself in the larger
conflicts between Britain and revolutionary,
later Napoleonic, France, from 1793-1815.
Britain occupied many strategically vital ports
in the wake of Napoleonic Wars, including
Gibraltar, Malta, the Cape of Good Hope, and
Singapore.

The British completed their military conquest of
India.
Attempted for the very first time to establish
diplomatic relations with China.
In 1788, Australia became the destination of the
first British penal transports turning the
continent into another colony.

As a fiscal military state Britain was capable
of mobilizing a greater amount of financial
resources at home than were the absolutistic
monarchies of the Eurasian continent.
The improved capacity of naval warfare was one of
the results of British efforts to rationally
organize the states policies of taxation and
debt financing.
France and Russia quickly copied the British
model.

The concentration of power in the Atlantic region
was one of the most imqportant reasons for the
great crisis of the Western Hemisphere.
In the 1760s both the British state and the
Spanish crown attempted to strengthen their
respective holds over their American colonies.
Response Thirteen British colonies declared
their independence in 1776 and fought against the
British and defeated them in 1783.

In the Spanish colonies the first attempts by the
Creole elite to free themselves proved too week,.
But they finally succedded in becoming
independent as the Spanish monarchy fell apart in
the wake of Napoleons invasion.
By 1825 the Spanish colonial empire had
disappeared altogether from the American
continent.

A third war of independence started in 1791 by
the mulatto planters and black slaves in St.
Dominique the most importannt sugar producing
area of the world.
Civil war French British intervention
independence in 1804 under the name of Haiti, the
first black republic in History

The crises in the Atlantic between the Old and
New Worlds from about 1765 to 1825 were the
result of intense processes of integration in
this maritime region.
Paradoxical consequences in the long-term.
The revolts of settler and slaves destroyed some
of the existing links.
Once its sugar-exporting economy collapsed,
slave-free Haiti dropped out of the global
economy

In the USA the political elite directed the
nations attention westward, away from the
Atlantic. Great adventure of settling the North
American continent began.
The new republics of South and Central America
wanted to have as little to do with Spain as
possible.

New international links were forged between the
two sides of the Atlantic.
In place of Spain, Latin American countries
established new economic relations with the
leader of globalization, Britain.
The economic, social, and cultural relations
between the USA and the Britain survived the
political split and developed over time into the
special relationship.

Napoleons global repercussion The invasion of
Egypt in 1798.
Alarmed the entire Muslim world
Spurred British imperialism on to furtthur
expansion in Asia

The mature expression of the modern nation-state
system at the end of World War I
US President Woodrow Wilsons Fourteen Points
based on the principle of national
self-determination.
All forms of national identity should be given
their territorial expression
Enshrining the nation-state as the ethical
legal pinnacle of his proposed interstate
system.

Extremely difficult to enforce in practice
Wilson lent some legitimacy to those radical
ethnonationalist forces that pushed the worlds
main powers into another war of global
proportions.

The League of Nations.
Yet, Wilsons commitment to the nation-state
coexisted with internationalist dream of
establishing a global system of collective
security under the auspices of a new
international organization, the League of
Nations.
The United Nations
His idea of giving international cooperation an
institutional expression was eventually realized
with the founding of the United Nations in 1945.

While deeply rooted in a political order based on
the modern nation-state system,
the UN and other fledgling intergovernmental
organizations served a catalyst for the gradual
extension of political activities across national
boundaries,
thus undermining the principle of national
sovereignty.

As globalization tendencies grew stronger during
the 1970s, it became clear that the international
society of separate states was rapidly turning
into a global web of political interdependencies
that challenged the sovereignty of nation-states.
In 1990, at the outset of the Gulf War, US
President George H. W. Bush pronounced dead the
Westphalian model by announcing the birth of a
new world order.

89
In 1924, Is BankasiIn 1925, Sanayi ve Maadin
BankasiIn 1927, Tesvik-i Sanayi Kanunu

Contemporary manifestiations of globalization
have led to the partial permeation of these old
territorial borders, in the process also
softening hard conceptual boundaries cultural
lines of demarcation.
.

90
In 1924, Is BankasiIn 1925, Sanayi ve Maadin
BankasiIn 1927, Tesvik-i Sanayi Kanunu

Hyperglobalizers have suggested that the period
since tle late 1960s has been marked by a
radical deterritorialization of politics, rule,
and governence.

91
In 1924, Is BankasiIn 1925, Sanayi ve Maadin
BankasiIn 1927, Tesvik-i Sanayi Kanunu

Globalization sceptics have not oly affirmed the
continued relevance of the nation-state as the
political container of modern social life but
have also poited to the emergence of regional
blocks as evidence for new forms of
territorialization.

Question
Is it really true that the power of nation-state
has been curtailed by massive flow of capital,
people, and technology across territorial
boundaries ?

Political globalization is the creation of a
world government which regulates the
relationships among nations and guarantees the
rights arising from social economic
globalization.
Politically, the United States has enjoyed a
position of power among the world powers in part
because of its strong and wealthy economy.

With the influence of globalization and with the
help of The United States own economy, China has
experience some tremendous growth within the past
decade.
If China continues to grow at the rate projected
by the trends, then it is very likely that in the
next twenty years, there will be a major
reallocation of power among the world leaders.

China will have enough wealth, industry, and
technology to rival the United States for the
position of leading world power.

Informational globalization
Increase in information flows between
geographically remote locations

Cultural globalization
Growth of cross-cultural contacts advent of new
categories of consciousness and identities such
as Globalism
Globalism which embodies cultural diffusion, the
desire to consume and enjoy foreign products and
ideas, adopt new technology and practices,
participate in a world culture.

Greater international cultural exchange
Spreading of multiculturalism, and better
individual access to cultural diversity (e.g.
through the export of Hollywood and Bollywood
movies).
However, the imported culture can easily supplant
the local culture, causing reduction in diversity
through hybridization or even assimilation.
The most prominent form of this is
Westernization, but Sinicization of cultures has
taken place over most of Asia for many centuries.

Ecological globalization
The advent of global environmental challenges
that can not be solved without international
cooperation, such as climate change,
cross-boundary water air pollution,
over-fishing of the ocean, and the spread of
invasive species.
Many factories are built in developing countries
where they can pollute freely.

100

Social globalization
The achievement of free circulation by people of
all nations.
Greater international travel and tourism
Greater immigration, including illegal
immigration.
Spread of local consumer products (e.g. food) to
other countries (often adapted to their culture)

101

World-wide fads and pop culture such as Pokémon,
Sudoku, Numa Numa, Origami, Idol series, YouTube,
Orkt, Facebook , and MySpace.
World-wide sporting events such as FIFA World Cup
and the Olympic Games.
Formation or development of a set of universal
values.

102

Imperialism
Scholarly opinion split into two camps
Radical / Marxist Camp
Verus
Liberal / Conservative Camp
One camp Radical intellectual drew on Marx and
Lenin
linked 19th-century imperialism to the
development of industrial capitalism.

103

The process of capital accumalation generated
internal contradictions that found expression
during the last quarter of the 19th century in
new and all-encompassing forms of imperialism.
The struggle for control of the world was not
confined to the acquisition of colonies it
culminated in WWI.
Imperialism, like capitalism, knew no frontiers
economic integration created colonies as well as
semi-colonies.

104

liberal-conservative camp
Grouped around a liberal-conservative banner,
rejected Marxism,
elaborated a range of alternative accounts of
empire and imperialism.
Against mono-causal economic analysis was ranged
a multiplicity of diplomatic, political, social,
and cultural, as well as economic, explanations
of empire-building.
Against the determinism of impersonal forces was
set the role of individuals and chance.

105

Eurocentric versus Ex-centric
Eurocentrism was countered by the ex-centric
thesis,
shifted causation to the periphery by emphasizing
the role of sub-imperialists, or men-on-the-spot.
Debits versus Benefits
The claim that imperialism was explotative
provoked alternative exercises in historical
accounting to show that it brought benefits.

106

The 19th century was a period of unparalleled
imperial expansion.
Extraordinary voyages of discovery in previous
centuries had enabled cartographers to inscribe
other continents on the map of mankind.
Parts of the world, notably the Americas and the
Indies, had already experienced European conquest
and rule.

107

Europeans, in turn, had been influenced by what
they read and by what they consumed.
Colonial imports had brought the exotic to the
Old World.
from spices to silver, from potatoes to
tobacco, from sugar to tea
A fascination with distant lands Defoes
Robinson Crusoe (1719)

108

Petentartive capacity of Europe in the 19th
century.
the applicationof science, especially new
technology, to the means of production,
communication, and coercion, gave Europe a
penetrative capacity far in excess of anything
available to merchant venturers and
conquistadors.

109

It became posible to convert mastery of the sea
to ascendancy on land in new and decisive ways
to move the frontiers of Eurean influence deep
into the still-uncharted interior of vast
continents.

110

Exploration Partition - Occupation
By the close of the 19th century, exploration had
been overtaken by partition and partition, in
turn, by occupation.
Spheres of influence
Large segments of other continents had been
annexed, and spheres of influence established
over much of the Middle East, the Far East, and
Latin America.

111

Expansion and Imperialism
The terms expansion and imperialism are often
used as if they were interchangeable.
To do so is to lose a valuable distinction.
Europes expansion overseas is an inclusive term
If imperialism is removed for separate study,
expansion can be reserved for international
movements (whether of people, trade, or ideas)
that were not imperialistic.

112

Imperialism
Imperialism can than be used to refer to a
particular form of expansion, one marked by
inequality and subordination, and by the
intergration of a client or satellite state into
more powerful host or mother country.

113

Empire versus Nation State
The integration is always incomplete an empire
remains a multi-ethnic conglomerate if it
assimilates subject peoples fully, it becomes an
enlarged nation state.
Imperialism can exist without an empire being
created.

114

The criterium
Whether the sovereignty or independence of the
recipient was effectively and significantly
diminished - Argentina the Ottoman Empire.
Subordination to imperialism
Subordination to imperialism does not, of itself,
entail one result, and the result that applies at
one moment may well alter with the passage of
time.

115

Three vantage points 1815, 1870, 1914.
A marked contrast in the picture before (in
1815) and after (in 1914)
The global order that existed in 1918 showed
distinct signs of change after 1850.
By 1870 the manifestations of these changes were
readily apparent.
By 1914 they had transformed the world.

116

The Eurepean empires in 1815
The long and debilitating conflict between
Britain and France was a struggle for the mastery
of the world as well as Europe.
Following the Peace of Paris in 1763, France had
been excluded from the two greatest prizes North
America and India.
Under the aggressive leadership of Napoleon
Bonaparte, the French had attempted to reclaim
and extend their lost position.

117

Britains triumph at Trafalgar in 1805 delivered
supremacy over the oceans.
Waterloo effectively levelled France on the
continent of Europe and kept it there long enough
for the Pax Britanicca to become an entrenched
reality for the greater part of the century.
Meanwhile, London replaced Amsterdam as the
commercial and financial capital of Europe.

118

An imperial quiescence / rest with free trade
era ?
Or Anti-Imperialism ?
There was a growing trend away from empire from
the late 18th century provided the basis for the
view that the ensuing era of free trade was
essentially anti-imperialist.
Much of the 19th century was a period of imperial
quiescence / rest.
Sudden renewal of imperialist rivalries during
the last quarter of the century.

119

It is impossible to accept the proposition that
there was a long period of anti-imperialism
between two phases of empire, one old and one
new.
Britains record after the loss of American
colonies is scarcely that of an anti-imperial
power.
The first half of the 19th century saw
substantial formal additions to the British
Empire.
Overseas expansion also increased Britains
informal presence and influence.

120

1838, a free-trade treaty with the Ottoman
Empire
Safeguarded the position of European settlers,
Subjected tariffs to external control,
Emilinated state monopolies.
The treaty was followed by a package of
modernizing reforms Tanzimat Reforms
After a show of force, a similar free-trade
treaty was signed with Persia in 1841.

121

Britain fought two wars with China in 1839-42 and
1856-60.
Gained Hong Kong and a string of Treaty Ports
that were intended to promote British trade with
the largely untapped interior.
But the greatest scope for creating an informal
empire lay in Latin America.
The idea was to shape the newly independent
republics through trade, investment, and the
export of British liberalism.

122

A whole range of notable extensions to Britains
effective presence in non-European world during
the first half of the 19th century.
The most influential explanation focuses on the
Industrial Revolution.
Industrialization distinguished Britains
economic development from that of other European
states.
It can also account for Britains much greater
success overseas as well.

123

New industries grew up within the protection of
mercantilist restrictions, which most
manufacturers were anxious to cling to for as
long as possible, and free trade was not
established fully until 1850, following the
abolition of the Corn Laws in 1846 and the
Navigation Act of 1849.
Clear signs of systematic connection between the
process of industrialization and imperialism date
from the 1830s and 1840s.

124

Triumph or Difficulties
A manifestation not of the triumph of industry
but of its emerging difficulties.
The staple exports (especially cotton goods) were
suffering from overproduction and falling profits
and
needed new markets, which could not be obtained
readily in protectionist Europe.

125

Population growth and Unemployment
Population growth was outstripping domestic food
supplies
and
rising unemployment was generating a challenge to
civil order.

126

Mercantilism versus Liberalism
The decision to abandon mercantilism was an
experiment designed to provide new markets for
manufactures and new sources of food for the
urban population.

127

Finance and Service Sector
The place of the Industrial Revolution
exagerrated.
Attention needs to be shifted to the development
of finance and commercial services, symbolized by
the rise of London as the pre-eminent center of
world trade an by the emergence of the pound
sterling as the leading international currency.

128

LONDON and the CITY
London major center of service-sector
employment the City generated vital overseas
earnings.
Considerable influence in political circles.

129

Warehouse versus Workshop
Imperial expansion was designed not only to solve
industrys problem but to maximize the Citys
earnings,
make Britain the warehouse of the world rather
than its workshop.

130

Defence and the Navy
Considerations of defence to be given prominence
in accounting for Britains overseas expension.
The small, offshore island had long been obliged
to give the highest priority to the need to
protect itself against larger and more powerful
neighbours, first Spain annd then France.

131

The main strategy was to develop the navy.
Naval strength was supported by mercantilist
policies
wealth created by seaborne commerce generated
valuable foreign earnings and a degree of
independence from land-based predators.

132

The first half of the 19th century was a period
of markedly uneven development in Europes
relations with non-European societies.
Once great empires were in retreat or had
collapsed, Britain alone was creating new
frontiers of expension, formal and informal,
overseas.

133

By maximizing its comparative advantage in
finance, shipping, and commerce, and by creating
reliable political allies abroad,
Britain hoped to bring into being an
international regime that would support its own
emerging liberal economic and political order.

134

From 1870 onwards
The period of intense imperialist competition
that characterized the years leading down to the
First World War.
Major economic, political, and cultural trends
began to emerge from about the middle of the
century.

135

By 1870 a number of interlocking economic and
technological changes had begun to transform the
landscape of continental Europe.
Industrialization had spread in a slow and patchy
way from the early years of the century.

136

By the last quarter of the century, particular
regions of Germany, France, and Belgium had
sizeable industrial sectors.
Germany, the most advanced of the continental
powers, was starting to pioneer the products of
the second industrial revolution, such as
chemicals and electrical goods.

137

Steam power
The aplication of steam power, which was
fundamental to improvements in manufacturing
productivity, enabled striking gains to be made
in transport efficiency.
Railways
Railways were built from the 1830s.
Transoceanic steamship services began in the
1850s.
These developments cut the cost and speeded up
the movement of goods and people dramatically.

138

Electricity
Another miraculous innovation was electricity.
It had a similar effect on information flows
following the invention of the land telegraph in
the 1840s and the submarine cable in the 1850s.

139

War Technology
Improvements in technology also transformed the
means of destruction, making possible large and
more powerful navies
and,
through the invention of automatic loading and
mobile field guns, brought the prospect of total
war nearer.

140

These innovations impringed on the overseas world
very soon after they were adopted in Europe.
During the 1850s regular steamship services began
to ports in sub-Saharan Africa, railway
construction started in India, Australia, and
Latin America and the first transatlantic
telegraph cable was laid.
Railway-building in most of Asia and Africa
awaited the coming of European rule at the close
of the century.

141

Engineering skills
New engineering skills enabled the great canals
of Suez (1869) and Panama (1914) to part four
continents.

142

Modern weapons
They had the considerable merit of enabling the
few to dominate the many.
Modern weapons arrived even sooner.
Enfield rifles to deal with the Indian Mutiny in
1856
Gatlings machine guns from 1862.
Maxims much improved version of machine gun in
1889.
These engines of destruction were labour-saving
devices the cost of coercion diminished.

143

Wolume value of trade
These developments greatly strengthened the
connection between Europe and the rest of the
world.
The volume and value of trade expanded to reach
unprecedented levels.
More significant
Changes in the structure of the international
economy
Increasing specialization produced the classic
pattern of exchange

144

Unequal
Europe exported manufactures and the rest of the
world concentrated on produciding raw materials
and foodstuffs.
The growth of export enclaves across the world
cereals, vegetable oils, cotton, jute, coffee,
cocoa, rubber, silk, timber.
Carried by steamship to the ports of Europe in
exchange for
The staples of the great manufacturing centers
Notably textiles and metal goods.

145

The mining revolution
Rich deposits of gold and other minerals, such as
diamonds, copper, and tin were found on distant
frontiers.
It was at this point, in the second half of the
century, that the Industrial Revolution began to
have an important effect on economic relations
with the world beyond Europe.

146

Export of capital - Financial flows
The expansion of world trade was closely
associated with the export of capital and the
movement of people.
After about 1850, financial flows from Europe
were of growing importance in funding development
in the rest of the world.

147

At first, capital was directed mainly to
governments,
to assist classical structures, like the Ottoman
Empire,
or
to modernize or to help entirely new states, like
the Latin American republics, to come into being.

148

Private venture
From 1870s, a growing proportion of finance was
raised for private venture, above all for
railways.
With increasing scale and specialization, a new
set of large banks and complementary commercial
and shipping firms emerged to manage the
international economy.
The integration of commodity markets was matched
by the integration of capital markets.

149

Financial crisis in the United States in 1873
Transmitted to the other industrializing
countries and, via them, to the exporters of
primary products.
The Ottoman bankrapcy The foundadion of the
Ottoman Debt administration in 1881.

150

The opening of new frontiers generated a fresh
exodus from Europe.
Emigration was fuelled by population growth,
unemployment, and political instability.

151

New opportunities grew and the cost of taking
them fell.
About the middle of the 19th century the
large-scale, enforced movement of Africans across
the Atlantic was finally halted and was replaced
by a flow of free, desperately poor, migrants

152

English, Scots, Welsh, and Irish settled in Nort
America
Spanish and Italian emigrants went to Latin
America.
The other colonies of settlement the Cape,
Australia and New Zeland began to fill out.
These flows expanded greatly during the last
quarter of the century.

153

The movement of peoples between and within the
other continents
Increased numbers of Chinese found their way to
Singapore and other parts of south-east Asia.
Indian settlers and transient workers expanded
their age-old ties with East Africa and extended
them south to the Cape.
Africans, Vietnamese, Malays, and many others
travelled long distances to work in mines and on
plantations.

154

Taken as a whole, what was happening globally by
1870 was the movement of one factor of
production, labour, funded by another, capital,
to take up opportunities on a third, immobile
factor, land.
The effort to convert souls travelled in harness
with the effort to transform economies and
societies.
By 1870, there had been a revival of missionary
energy and activity that continued down to 1914,
especially in Africa and Asia.

155

The information gathered from these diverse
sources and places was processed in new or
expanded ways.
Increasing literacy, combined with growth of the
popular press, brought news of the wider world to
a non-specialist audience.
Fact and fantasy were mixed to produce malleable
representations and misrepresentations of other
societies.

156

By the turn of the century, the colonial novel
had become a well-recognized literary genre.
Images of distant lands, typically mixed with
imperial and patriotic thems, found many other
popular outlets.
Scholarship also played its part in conveying
ideas about the non-European world.

157

Geography, geology, oceanography, anthropology,
botany, zoology, tropical medicine, and history
were among the academic disciplines that were
generally stimulated by overseas expansion.
Empire, its heroes, and the values they
exemplified also entered into the training of the
young, especially in Britain, through the
education system, sport, and youth organization
such as Boy Scouts and Girl Guides.

158

Imperialism became an increasingly prominent item
on the political agenda after 1870.
This was a time of intense imperialist rivalries.
The whole of Africa was partitioned and
subsequently occupied, principally by Britain
and France.

159

Other European powers, old and new, shared in the
spoils.
The spread of informal influence and the creation
of informal empires.
Although Latin America, the Middle East, and
China did not become European colonies, their
independence was significantly compromised.

160

A number of Latin American republics, headed by
Argentina, were dominated by British finance and
trade, and their political elites were beguiled /
attracted by British liberalism.

161

The Ottoman Empire fell increasingly under the
control of Britain, France, and Germany after
defaulting on its external debt in 1875.
The Ottoman economic and financial structures
integrated into the European and world economies
in the 19th century.
In this process, the essential factor was the
rapid growth in trade between the Ottoman Empire
and the leading countries of Europe.

162

During the three-quarters of a century following
the free trade treaties, signed first with
Britain in 1838 then with other European
countries,
total Ottoman exports increased more than five
times,
while imports measured in current prices expanded
six and a half times.

163

The Ottoman economic structure witnessed a
deep-going commercialization in the wake of
Napoleonic wars.
Although a number of bilateral trade and
commercial relations between the Ottoman Empire
and Europe predated the Tanzimat reform of 1839,
the proclamation of the reform edict, greatly
accelerated Ottoman integration into the world
economy.

164

Both the reforms of the Tanzimat era and the
growth in foreign trade had a positive impact on
internal trade.
The injection of money through foreign trade
dismantled the self-sufficient, closed economic
circuits.

165

Britain and Russia divided Persia into spheres of
informal influence in 1907
China resisted foreign incursions until prised /
forced open by the rising power of Japan after
the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-5.
There followed a scramble for concessions and
influence that resulted in large segments of
China being partitioned informally between
Britain, France, Russia, and Germany.

166

The question to be addressed
Why was expansion converted into imperialism (and
then into empire) at certain times and in certain
places.
This outcome was not inevitable.
Britain exported manufactured goods, capital, and
people to the United States on a large scale in
the 19th century, yet it ditd not attempt to
re-annex its former colonies or to turn them into
an informal empire.
French capital and expertise played a significant
part in modernizing Russias economy and army at
the close of the century without making the Tsar
a pawn of Paris.

167

The explanation
The relationsihp between parties was one of
approximate equality it was not possible even if
it were desirable, for one to dominate the other.
For expansion to become imperialism and for
imperialism to be translated into empire, two
conditions had to be met
The motive had to be strong enough for the
attempt to be made.
The inequality between expanding and the
receiving states had to be sufficiently large to
make the prospect of domination practible.