Chapter 7 Operant Conditioning:

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Chapter 7Operant Conditioning

• Schedules and Theories
• Of Reinforcement

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Now that we have discussed reinforcement . . . .

• It is time to discuss just HOW reinforcements can
  and should be delivered
• In other words, there are other things to
  consider than just WHAT the reinforcer should be!

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Think about this!

• If you were going to reinforce your puppy for
  going to the bathroom outside, how would you do
  it?
• Would you give him a Liv-a-Snap every time? Some
  of the time?
• Would you keep doing it the same way or would you
  change your method as you go along?

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What is a schedule of reinforcement?

• A schedule of reinforcement is the response
  requirement that must be met in order to obtain
  reinforcement.
• In other words, it is what you have to do to get
  the goodies!

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Continuous vs. IntermittentReinforcement

• Continuous
• A continuous reinforcement schedule (CRF) is one
  in which each specified response is reinforced

• Intermittent
• An intermittent reinforcement schedule is one in
  which only some responses are reinforced

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Intermittent Schedules

• When you want to reinforce based on a certain
  number of responses occurring (for example, doing
  a certain number of math problems correctly), you
  can use a ratio schedule

• When you want to reinforce the first response
  after a certain amount of time has passed (for
  example when a teacher gives a midterm test), you
  can use an interval schedule

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Four Types of Intermittent Schedules

• Ratio Schedules
• Fixed Ratio
• Variable Ratio

• Interval Schedules
• Fixed Interval
• Variable Interval

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Fixed Ratio Schedule

• On a fixed ratio schedule, reinforcement is
  contingent upon a fixed, predictable number of
  responses
• Characteristic pattern
• High rate of response
• Short pause following each reinforcer
• Reading a chapter then taking a break is an
  example
• A good strategy for getting started is to start
  with an easy task

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Fixed Ratio, continued

• Higher Ratio requirements result in longer
  post-reinforcement pauses
• Example The longer the chapter you read, the
  longer the study break!
• Ratio Strain a disruption in responding due to
  an overly demanding response requirement
• Movement from dense/rich to lean schedule
  should be done gradually

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Fixed Ratio FR

• Fixed Ratio is abbreviated FR and a number
  showing how many responses must be made to get
  the reinforcer is added
• Ex. FR 5 (5 responses needed to get a reinforcer)

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Variable Ratio Schedule

• On a variable ratio schedule, reinforcement is
  contingent upon a varying, unpredictable number
  of responses
• Characteristic pattern
• High and steady rate of response
• Little or no post-reinforcer pausing
• Hunting, fishing, golfing, shooting hoops, and
  telemarketing are examples of behaviors on this
  type of schedule

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Other facts aboutVariable Ratio Schedules

• Behaviors on this type of schedule tend to be
  very persistent
• This includes unwanted behaviors like begging,
  gambling, and being in abusive relationships
• Stretching the ratio means starting out with a
  very dense, rich reinforcement schedule and
  gradually decreasing the amount of reinforcement
• The spouse, gambler, or child who is the victim
  must work harder and harder to get the reinforcer

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Variable Ratio VR

• Variable Ratio VR
• Variable Ratio is abbreviated VR and a number
  showing an average of how many responses between
  1 and 100 must be made to get the reinforcer is
  added
• Ex. VR 50 (an average of 50 responses needed to
  get a reinforcer could the the next try, or it
  could take 72!
• Gambling is the classic example!

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Fixed Interval Schedules

• On a fixed interval schedule, reinforcement is
  contingent upon the first response after a
  fixed, predictable period of time
• Characteristic pattern
• A scallop pattern produced by a
  post-reinforcement pause followed by a gradually
  increasing rate of response as the time interval
  draws to a close
• Glancing at your watch during class provides an
  example!
• Student study behavior provides another!

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Fixed Interval FI

• Fixed Interval is abbreviated FI and a number
  showing how much time must pass before the
  reinforcer is available
• FI 30-min (reinforcement is available for the
  first response after 30 minutes have passed)
• Ex. Looking down the tracks for the train if it
  comes every 30 minutes

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Variable Interval Schedule

• On a variable interval schedule, reinforcement is
  contingent upon the first response after a
  varying, unpredictable period of time
• Characteristic pattern
• A moderate, steady rate of response with little
  or no post-reinforcement pause.
• Looking down the street for the bus if you are
  waiting and have no idea how often it comes
  provides an example!

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Variable Interval VI

• Variable Interval is abbreviated VI and a
  number showing the average time interval that
  must pass before the reinforcer is available
• VI 30-min (reinforcement is available for the
  first response after an average of 30 minutes has
  passed)
• Ex. Hilarys boyfriend, Michael, gets out of
  school and turns on his phone some time between
  300 and 330 the reward of his answering his
  phone puts her calling behavior on a VI schedule,
  so she calls every few minutes until he answers

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Noncontingent Reinforcement

• What happens when reinforcement occurs randomly,
  regardless of a person or animals behavior?
• Weird Stuff!
• Like what?

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Superstitious Behavior

• Examples include
• Rituals of gamblers, baseball players, etc.
• Elevator-button-pushing behavior
• Noncontingent reinforcement can sometimes be used
  for GOOD purposes (not just weird or useless
  behaviors!)

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Good, useful examples

• Giving noncontingent attention to children
• Some bad behaviors like tantrums are used to try
  to get attention from caregivers
• These behaviors can be diminished by giving
  attention noncontingently
• Children need both contingent AND non-contingent
  attention to grown up healthy and happy!

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Theories of Reinforcement

• In the effort to answer the question, What makes
  reinforcers work?, theorists have developed some
  . . . . .
• THEORIES!!!!!

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So heres the first one

• If you are hungry and go looking for food and eat
  some, you will feel more comfortable because the
  hunger has been reduced.
• The desire to have the uncomfortable hunger
  drive reduced motivates you to seek out and eat
  the food

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Drive Reduction Theory

• So this is one thing that can make reinforcers
  work
• An event is reinforcing to the extent that it is
  associated with a reduction in some type of
  physiological drive
• This type of approach may explain some behaviors
  (like sex) but not others (like playing video
  games)

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Incentive Motivation

• Sometimes, we just do things because they are
  FUN!
• When this happens, we can say that motivation is
  coming from some property of the reinforcer
  itself rather than from some kind of internal
  drive
• Examples include playing games and sports,
  putting spices on food, etc.

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We can also think about how we use reinforcers.

• We can use a behavior we love (high probability
  behavior) to reinforce a behavior we dont like
  to do very much (low probability behavior).
• This is sometimes called Grandmas Principle
• Bobby, you can read those comic books once you
  have mowed the grass!
• To use this theory, you have to know the
  relative probability of each behavior

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What do you do if you only know the probability
for one?

• You can use the next theory!
• Lets say you know that a person likes to play
  video games. You can use playing video games as
  a reinforcer IF you
• Restrict access to playing
• Make sure the person is getting to play less
  frequently than they prefer to

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This is the Response Deprivation Hypothesis

• Any behavior that you can restrict access to and
  keep it below the person or animals preferred
  level of doing it can be used as a reinforcer
• Think of some examples!

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Behavioral Bliss Point

• The Response Deprivation Hypothesis makes an
  assumption that there is an optimal or best level
  of behavior that a person or animal tries to
  maintain
• If you could do ANYTHING at all you wanted to do,
  how would you distribute your time?
• This would tell you your behavioral bliss point
  for each activity or behavior

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Behavioral Bliss Point contd

• An organism that has free access to alternative
  activities will distribute its behavior in such a
  way as to maximize overall reinforcement
• In other words, if you can do anything you want,
  you will spend time on each thing you do in a way
  that will give you the most pleasure

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But this is real life!

• This means that you can almost never achieve your
  behavioral bliss point
• So you have to compromise by coming as close as
  you can, given your circumstances
• No wonder we hate to leave our childhoods behind!