Slajd 1

1
BISON
2
Natural History

• The European bison (Bison bonasus), also called
  the wisent, and zubr (zshoobr) in Poland, once
  roamed the great temperate, deciduous forest
  biome that stretched from the British Isles,
  through most of Europe and into Siberia (PHVA,
  1999). Though, time has taken its toll on the
  once continuous distribution of bison, which now
  exist in few isolated areas. There are two
  subspecies the lowland bison (Bison bonasus
  bonasus) and the highland or Caucasus bison
  (Bison bonasus caucasus), yet there are no
  remaining pure Caucasus stock-- they were
  intermixed with lowland bison and, in some cases,
  the American bison (Bison bison) before they went
  extinct in the wild. The original distribution
  consisted of three subspecies, but today only the
  lowland pedigree and Caucasus hybrid remains. The
  herds are managed as two separate lineage and
  kept isolated to prevent interbreeding. The
  lowland bison today consists of about 1,000
  animals, with 69 free ranging in Poland,
  Belarus, Russia, Lithuania, Romania, and Ukraine.
  The others exist in zoos, private preserves, and
  breeding stations. The Caucasus subspecies is
  made up of about 2,200 animals, roughly half of
  which are wild. (PHVA, 1999). For practical
  purposes the remainder of this paper will
  consider only the lowland subspecies.

3

• The largest concentration of European bison live
  in Poland's Bialowieza National Park (Falinski,
  1999). It is here that Europe's last remaining
  primeval forest stands. The National Park covers
  an area of about 20-square miles, which is
  located within the larger (and lesser protected)
  Bialowieza forest 220sq.mi., and is contiguous
  to Belarus Beloveskaja Pusca National Park
  335sq.mi (WCMC, 1999) .

4

• The ancient forest lies in a flat, moist region
  consisting of 26 species of trees, 55 species of
  shrubs, 14 species dwarf shrubs, and 62 species
  of mammals, of which wolves and lynx are
  important predators of young and weak bison.
  These are a few of the over 10,000 species that
  contribute to the forests rich biodiversity
  (Falinski, 1999). Some of the trees include oak,
  lime, hornbeam, ash, maple, elm, pines, firs,
  alder, willow, birch and aspen. This dense,
  climax forest is interspersed with ecosystems of
  marsh, peat bog, meadow, and thicket. (Falinski,
  1999).
• The herbivorous bison are mostly browsers, but
  can graze where grasses are available. As primary
  consumers they browse on a wide range of
  deciduous trees, shrubs, and heathers, and on
  evergreen trees and shrubs in the winter
  (Falinski, 1999). Their diets include leaves,
  twigs, young shoots, bark and berries of over 374
  different plants (Riccuiti, 1973). Their favorite
  plants include willow, aspen, ash, mistletoe, and
  blackberry. They also eat mushrooms, ferns,
  lichens, mosses, and acorns (Krasinski,1990).
  Because the bison's range is restricted by
  man-made barriers within forest boundaries, park
  wardens supplement the animal's diet in winter
  with hay, oats, and sugar beets (Hinrichsen,
  1990).

5

• The European bison is the largest mammal on the
  continent. Large bulls can stand over 6 feet
  tall, be longer than 9 feet, and weigh over 2,000
  lbs. Males are larger than the females, but both
  sexes have short horns (TUUP, 1999.). A thick
  shaggy mane covers the head and neck, and in the
  autumn the bison put on an extra thick coat of
  hair to ready themselves for the winter, where
  temperatures in January average 25 F, and snow
  cover persists, on average, 92 days a year
  (Falinski, 1999).

6

• The female bison usually live in herds of around
  twenty to thirty animals (Burton Pearson,
  1987). Herd sizes vary due to their seasonal
  cycles breeding, calving, and chance encounters
  with other groups determine the number in a group
  (Krasinski,1990). During the calving season,
  which usually lasts from May to July, cows leave
  the herds and give birth to one calf, sometimes
  two (Riccuiti, 1973). Gestation period for the
  cows last between 254-272 days (TUUP, 1999).
  Within days of the birth, calves are on their
  feet. Weaning lasts from four to six months. The
  female calves will reach sexual maturity in about
  two years, while the males at about eight years.
  Bison can live to be over twenty-five years old
  (TUUP, 1999).
• During the winter months the cows and their
  calves congregate into larger herds, where they
  gather at two remote feeding stations. Although
  the bison gather in larger herds in the winter,
  each animal acts on its own, with little
  coordination in their activities.
  (Krasinski,1990). Some of the older bulls form
  small herds, but most bulls keep to themselves.
  In historical times, winter served as an aid in
  the natural selection process, as the scarcity of
  food and colder weather weeded out weaker
  animals. Some scientists also believe the bison
  may have migrated south to warmer regions during
  the harshest winters.

7

• Large mating bulls live most of the year alone.
  During the mating season, which begins in August
  and lasts through October, the bulls come in from
  the forest and join the herds of cows and their
  calves to commence the rut. The strongest and
  largest bulls go head to head, and square off by
  pushing their massive heads into their opponents
  until one is badly injured or tires (Hinrichsen,
  1990). Each breeding bull then gathers herds of
  twelve cows or more and remains with them until
  the end of mating season, at which time they
  return to their solitary lives (Krasinski, 1990).

8
Evolution

• The earliest fossil records for mammals date
  back around 230 million years ago, to the late
  Triassic-early Jurassic period. In the beginning
  of evolution from its reptile ancestors, mammals
  were small and shrew or mouse-like. Mammals
  remained small throughout the Mesozoic Era as
  dinosaurs dominated the Earth. With the
  calamitous events that brought the extinction of
  the dinosaurs some 65mya, mammals began their
  adaptive radiation into the many vacated niches.
  During this late Cretaceous Period, mammals would
  begin their ascension toward becoming the most
  dominant land animals. (Savage Long, 1986).
• Today, one third of all mammal genera are
  herbivores, and more than half belong to two
  ordersPerissodactyla, meaning odd-toed, and
  Artiodactyla, meaning even toed (Savage Long,
  1986). These ungulates, with the other four
  members of this group, have hooves, or
  specialized nails, as an adaptation for running
  (TUUP, 1999).

9

• The artiodactyls foot axis is between the 3rd
  and 4th digit, which are usually equal in size.
  This anatomical adaptation allowed for the limbs
  to elongate, especially the feet. These changes,
  along with the fusion of paired limb bones and
  alteration in the ankle joints, allowed ungulates
  to exploit a wide variety of terrains and escape
  predators quickly. The astralagus, or ankle bone,
  gives increased flexibility to the foot and aids
  springing action (Savage Long, 1986). As an
  example, bison can run over twenty-five miles per
  hour, and can jump a tenet stream or a six-foot
  tall fence from a standing position (Hinrichsen,
  1990).
• Three other important adaptations in some of the
  hoofed herbivores include a more complex four
  chambered stomach, skull outgrowths, and modified
  dentition. In the Artiodactyla suborder Pecora
  (giraffes, deer and cattle), the stomachs of
  these higher ruminants have four chambersthe
  rumen, reticulum, osmasum, and abomasum. It
  allows for the digestion of tough cellulose
  fibers. Microorganisms break down the food in the
  first two chambers, which is regurgitated and
  chewed as cud. It is then redigested through the
  last two stomach chambers and passed to the
  intestines. The fermenting process of the rumen
  facilitates efficient consumption of food, and at
  the same time allows the animal to spend more
  time resting while digesting its food, which
  decreases vulnerability to predators. The skull
  outgrowths of bison and others in the Bovidae
  family, are used both for defensive and offensive
  purposes. Both sexes have horns-- they are
  permanent, and never branch. The giant bison,
  Bison latifrons, from the late Pleistocene of
  southwest United States had horns over 7-feet
  long, compared to about 25-inches in the bison
  today. The teeth of the suborder Pecora have
  reduced canines or they are absent. The upper
  molars have four crescentic cusps, which vary
  mainly in height. Bovoids have higher crowned
  teeth than the deer and giraffe because of the
  different foods they eat. (Savage Long, 1986).

10

• The Bovoids are composed of two familiesthe
  antilocaprids, with the pronghorn of North
  America as its only representative, and the
  bovids of the Old World, which are represented by
  cattle, sheep, goats, antelope, gazelles,
  buffalo, and bison to name a few. Their family
  goes back to Miocene times, around 20-million
  years ago. During this period roughly fifteen
  genera existed, most being from Asia. By the late
  Miocene, some 10-mya, there are seventy new bovid
  genera, and by the Pleistocene, there were over
  one hundred. Today, there is about half that
  number. (Savage Long, 1986).
• It is presumed the family evolved from the
  tropical regions of the world. Only in the
  mid-Pleistocene do bovids appear to have adapted
  to cold, northern climates and migrated across
  Beringia into the New World (Savage Long,
  1986). The American bison (Bison bison) is a
  close cousin of The European bison. Scientists
  believe both species descend from an ancient
  relative in India. As the herds traveled north
  from India, some went east into Siberia and
  eventually crossed the Bering land bridge into
  the New World, while other members of the herd
  headed west into the European forests. Bison
  priscus, the immediate ancestor of the European
  bison went extinct, during the last glaciation.
  (Riccuiti, 1974).

11

• Some scientists believe the European bison was
  at one time a grazer. During the Ice Ages of the
  Pleistocene epoch, much of Europe and Asia was
  covered by glaciers. The remaining landscape
  consisted of steppes. The European bison, or its
  immediate ancestor, Bison priscus, lived on these
  grassy plains. As the glaciers retreated, much of
  the steppes were replaced by forests, and it is
  thought that the European bison adapted to its
  new environment by becoming a browser.

12
Distribution

• The lowland bison today consists of about 1,000
  animals, with 69 free-ranging in Poland,
  Belarus, Russia, Lithuania, Romania, and Ukraine.
  The others exist in zoos, private preserves, and
  breeding stations. The Caucasus subspecies is
  made up of about 2,200 animals, roughly half of
  which are wild. (PHVA, 1999). For practical
  purposes the remainder of this paper will
  consider only the lowland subspecies

13
Encounter with European Bison in Poland

• Bison in the Mist
• He stood there, dark, implacable, head lowered
  as if ready to charge. My Polish brother-in-law
  stopped the car and turned off the engine. We
  waited. The enormous beast pawed the ground but
  must have had second thoughts because he turned
  and slowly lumbered off to a grassy area at the
  side of the road. Misty sunlight streaming
  through the trees dappled his coat as he moved
  slowly away. He no longer looked menacing, but
  rather friendly with his thick mane and long
  beard, although I wouldn't want to come face to
  face with him while on foot. As we looked around
  a few more of the primeval animals came into
  view, varying in size from the giant male which
  we first laid eyes on, down to a couple of
  smaller younger ones, clustered around their
  mother at the far end of the enclosure.

14

• The Polish (European) bison or wisent (Bos
  bonasus), is a protected species inhabiting the
  Polish Bialowieza National Park, part of the
  Bialowieza Forest which actually straddles the
  Polish-Belarus border. It was the only walking
  animal which could freely cross the border until
  1981, the year of the Solidarity uprising. The
  border is now intermittently guarded and divided
  by a 2 ? meter high fence. A distant relative of
  the bison which once ranged the plains of the
  midwest of America in huge numbers, having made
  their way across the land bridge connecting Asia
  and the American continent thousands of years
  age, it weighs about a ton, is 11.5ft long and
  stands 6.5ft high at the shoulder. It roamed
  though Europe and England until the twelfth to
  the fourteenth centuries but remained in isolated
  wilderness areas in Poland and Russia. Called the
  zubr in Polish it was almost wiped out by
  hunting, poaching and the havoc of World War One,
  and in 1919 the last one left in the Bialowieza
  Forest died and in 1925 the only one remaining in
  the Russian Caucasus was killed. Luckily a few
  were available in zoos and private reserves, and
  an International Society for the Preservation of
  the European Bison was established. Today there
  are thousands of these animals living in
  protected areas in Eastern Europe.

15

• Buffalo, as they are known in the States, is the
  popular name used to describe the North American
  bison. However, buffalo is a distinctly different
  animal from bison. Although they both belong to
  the same family, Bovidae, true buffalo are native
  only to Africa and Asia. Of course they can still
  be seen roaming the plains of the Midwest, and
  for a local connection can be seen on the island
  of Catalina off the coast of Southern California,
  brought over by a film company in 1924 to be used
  in the filming of a Zane Grey story - either the
  film was never made or it is lost, but a small
  herd of bison remains.The Polish bison has a
  special liking for buffalo grass, which
  flourishes in the Bialowieza Forest. This grass
  not only serves the bison as its main source of
  nourishment but has brought fame and fortune to
  Polish distillers in the form of Zubrówka, a
  genuine Polish vodka specialty, the result of a
  tradition dating back to the 14th century. It
  owes its name to this aromatic grass. Each bottle
  of the liquor contains 2 or 3 blades of the
  grass, which imparts a vanilla scent and slight
  flavor and color to the contents. Not to seem too
  airy fairy, but most Poles know that directly
  under the cap of every bottle of Zubrowka is a
  warm Bialowieza Forest breeze, and further down
  in the bottle is a loud snuffling from the
  underbrush (this is probably experienced only
  after imbibing a few shots of the liquor!). It is
  best when served straight from the freezer, in
  order to enhance the taste of such delectables as
  caviar and smoked salmon.

16

• Of course I only learned these details after the
  visit to the forest. I was lucky in that as we
  were ready to leave, on the edge of the forest
  was a man busily carving souvenir bison. I
  immediately picked one out, still in its raw
  state, but the carver wanted me to wait while he
  applied a coat of varnish. I wasn't fond of the
  appearance of those which surrounded him - they
  looked simply cheap and tacky - so I refused and
  took the carving in its unvarnished state. Later
  at home I applied a dye myself, which to my eye
  looks much more authentic. Poor thing, in our
  many moves he has lost half of his horns, but he
  still reminds me of that wonderful sight of the
  massive beast, approaching us through the mist!
• by Jill Olechno, contact the author by e-mail
• Read more about Bialowieza Forest Polish Bison,
  Bison Grass Vodka Krupnik, and Travel and
  Places to visit in Poland. See more photographs
  in The Biogeography of the European Bison and
  Bialowieza National Park website.
• http//culture.polishsite.us/articles/art284fr.ht
  m