Taxonomy and Classification of the Animal Kingdom Ch' 25, 26, 33

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Taxonomy and Classification of the Animal
KingdomCh. 25, 26, 33 34
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• Phyloeny Systematics

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Introductory Question 4

• Key Pages to review
• Ch 46 pgs 964-965, 967, 970, 971, 974 976
• Ch. 47 pgs 989-995
• 1) Name three forms of asexual reproduction and
  give an example of an organism that does it.
• Name five structures found in the human male and
  five structures in the human female. Name the
  cell that produces testosterone and other
  androgens in the human male.
• How is oogenesis different from spermatogenesis?
  (pgs. 974-975)
• Looking at figures a-e on pg 976, when LH levels
  peak what is going on in regards to the uterine
  lining (e) and ovulation (c)? What structures
  produce progesterone estrogen? What do these
  two hormones promote?
• Name the four phases of the menstrual cycle. At
  what point does ovulation occur?
• What does IVF stand for? Name three effective
  forms of birth control.
• How is the acrosomal and cortical reactions
  different in the fertilization process? (Pgs
  988-989ch. 47) which process releases calcium?
• In the development process how is the morula
  stage different from the blastula stage?
• How is a protostome different from a
  deuterostome? Which one are we?
• From the three tissue (germ) layers that form
  during development, which layers does the brain
  and spinal cord form from? (see pg. 999) What
  about your glands endocrine system?

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Introductory Questions 5

• 1) Name three differences between a protostome
  and a deuterostome. Give an example of an
  organism for each.
• 2) How is coelomic cavity different from a
  pseudocoelomic cavity?
• Choose the group that doesnt belong?
• Planaria earthworms flukes
  tapeworms
• Clams lobsters snails Squid
• Plathelminthes Mollusca Nematoda
  Cnidaria
• Spiders millipedes lobster
  Echinoderms
• Tunicates lancelets salamaders sea
  urchins
• 4) What is a cladogram and what is it used for?
• 5) How are monophyletic, paraphyletic, and
  polyphyletic groups different from each other?

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Mass Extinction

• Permian
• (250 million years ago) 90 of marine animals
  Pangea merge
• Cretaceous
• (65 million years ago) death of dinosaurs, 50
  of marine species low angle comet

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Dinosaur Extinction

• Cataclysms have destroyed major taxa, provided
  environments for new ones

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Phylogeny the evolutionary history of a species

• Systematics the study of biological
  diversity in an evolutionary context
• The fossil record the ordered array of
  fossils, within layers, or strata, of
  sedimentary rock
• Paleontologists

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The fossil record

• Sedimentary rock rock formed from sand and mud
  that once settled on the bottom of seas, lakes,
  and marshes
• Dating
• 1- Relative geologic time scale sequence of
  species
• 2- Absolute radiometric dating age using
  half-lives of radioactive isotopes

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Biogeography the study of the past and present
distribution of species

• Pangaea-250 mya v Permian extinction
• Geographic isolation-180 mya v African/South
  American reptile fossil similarities v
  Australian marsupials

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SYSTEMATICS

• Study of the RELATIONSHIPS between organisms
• Most relationships
  based on MORPHOLOGY
• Can be misleading Problems w/
• ANALOGOUS structures
• HOMOLOGOUS structures

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SYSTEMATICS

• Ideally, all organisms at one level SHOULD have
  evolved from ONE common ancestor (monophyletic)

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Phylogeny of Darwins Finches
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More Objective Methods

• NUMERICAL PHENETICS
• CLADISTICS
• BIOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS Differences in
• Amino acid sequencing
• (Hemoglobin especially useful)
• Cytochrome c patterns
• Mitochondrial DNA

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Using Homologous DNA segments to plot species
divergence
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Radiometric Dating of Fossils
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Major Extinctions
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Phylogenetics

• The tracing of evolutionary relationships
  (phylogenetic tree)
• Linnaeus
• Binomial
• Genus, specific epithet
• Homo sapiens
• Taxon (taxa)

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Phylogenetic Trees

• Cladistic Analysis taxonomic approach that
  classifies organisms according to the order in
  time at which branches arise along a phylogenetic
  tree (cladogram)
• Clade each evolutionary branch in a cladogram
• Types
• 1- Monophyletic single ancestor that gives rise
  to all species in that taxon and to no species in
  any other taxon legitimate cladogram
• 2- Polyphyletic members of a taxa are derived
  from 2 or more ancestral forms not common to all
  members does not meet cladistic criterion
• 3- Paraphyletic lacks the common ancestor that
  would unite the species does not meet cladistic
  criterion

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Taxonomy

• Classification of "things"
• Binomial system in
  Latin devised by Linnaeus.
• Uses Latin for universality, conformity
• common names too easily confused

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Taxonomy

• Organizes all organisms from most general
  (Kingdoms), to most specific (subspecies)
• King Phillip Came Over For Great Sex
• Kingdom --gt Phylum --gt Class --gt Order
  --gt Family --gt Genus --gt species

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Constructing a Cladogram

• Sorting homology vs. analogy...
• Homology likenesses attributed to common
  ancestry
• Analogy likenesses attributed to similar
  ecological roles and natural selection
• Convergent evolution species from different
  evolutionary branches that resemble one another
  due to similar ecological roles

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Scientific Naming

• Begins with Genus (capitalized), ends with
  species (lower case)
• Subspecies names go LAST OF ALL (lower case)
• Sula leucogaster (Brown Booby) (Genus, species)
• ALWAYS UNDERLINE (or italicize) ALL parts of a
  Latin name

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Taxonomic Cycles

• Trends based on new evidence
• Splitters
• Take one species and
  split into several
• Lumpers
• Make separate
  species merely
  sub-species of each other

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Major Domains
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5 Kindom System
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Domain Break-downs
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Comparing Phylogenetic Systems
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ArchaebacteriaEubacteria

• Prokaryotes
• Single-celled
• Phototrophs
• Chemotrophs
• Heterotrophs
• Decomposers
• Pathenogens
• Symbiots

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Protista

• Eukaryotic
• Single-celled
• Hetero Phototrophs
• Mostly aquatic
• Some cause disease

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Fungi

• Eukaryotic
• mostly Multicellular
• Decomposers
• mushrooms, molds, yeasts
• symbiots

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Plants

• Eukaryotic
• Multicellular
• Photosynthetic
• algae, ferns, mosses, pine trees, flowering
  plants
• annuals and perennials

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Fertilization
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Embryonic Development/Fertilization (See pg. )

• Preformation until 18th century miniature
  infant in sperm or egg
• At fertilization/conception
• Acrosomal reaction hydrolytic enzyme action on
  egg jelly coat.
• Fast block to Polyspermy membrane depolarization
  prevents multiple fertilizations.
• Cortical reaction release of calcium causes
  hardening of egg outer layer and creates a...
• Slow block to polyspermy and...
• Egg activation increases metabolic activity
  protein synthesis

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The Fertilized Egg Cleavage

• Blastomeres resultant cells of cleavage/mitosis
• Yolk nutrients stored in the egg
• Vegetal pole side of egg with high yolk
  concentration
• Animal pole side of egg with low yolk
  concentration
• Morulasolid ball of cells
• Blastocoelfluid-filled cavity in morula
• Blastulahollow ball stage of development

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Stages of Development
Germ layers Mesoderm- middle Ectoderm-
outer Endoderm- inner
Mouth-----Protostome Anus-----Deuterostome
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Protostome vs. Deuterostome
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Animal Phylogeny Diversity

• 5- Protostome-Deuterostome dichotomy among
  coelomates protostomes (mollusks, annelids,
  arthropods) deuterostomes (echinoderms,
  chordates)
• a) cleavage protostomes spiral and determinate
  deuterotomes radial and indeterminate
• b) coelom formation protostomes schizocoelous
  deuterostomes enterocoelous
• c) blastopore fate protostomes mouth from
  blastopore deuterostomes anus from blastopore

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Chapter 33 Animals

• Eukaryotic
• Multicellular
• Motile
• Heterotrophic
• Invertebrates
• Vertebrates

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Def animal (n)

• Unique characteristics
• Heterotrophic eukaryotes ingestion
• Lack cell walls collagen
• Nervous muscular tissue
• Sexual diploid cleavage blastula
  gastrulation larvae metamorphosis
• Regulatory genes Hox genes

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Parazoa

• Invertebrates animals without backbones
• Closest lineage to protists
• Loose federation of cells (unspecialized) no
  tissues
• Phy. Porifera (sponges)

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Phylum Porifera (pore bearer)

• Sessile (attached to bottom)
• Spongocoel (central cavity)
• Osculum (large opening)
• Choanocytes (flagellated collar cells)
• Hermaphroditic (produce both sperm and eggs)

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Animal Phylogeny Diversity

• Parazoa- no true tissues, ex. sponges
• Eumetazoa all other animals with true tissues
• Symmetry
• Radiata Cnidaria (hydra jellyfish, comb
  jellies sea anemones) tenophora
• Bilateria all other animals bilateral body
  symmetry (also cephalization)

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Vertebrate Diversity

• Phy Chordata
• Subphylum Vertebrata
• Superclass Agnatha jawless
  vertebrates (hagfish, lampreys)
• Superclass Gnathostomata jawed vertebrates
  with 2 sets of paired appendages including
  tetrapods (4-footed) and amniotes (shelled
  egg)

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Animal Phylogeny Diversity

• Acoelomate, Pseudocoelomate, and Coelomate
  Grades triploblastic animals solid body, no
  body cavity called acoelomates (Platyhelminthes-fl
  atworms) body cavity, but not lined with
  mesoderm called pseudocoelomates (Rotifers) true
  coelom (body cavity) lined with mesoderm called
  coelomate
• Gastrulation germ layer development
• ectoderm (outer)
• mesoderm (middle)
• endoderm (inner)

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Coelomic Cavities
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The Radiata

• Diploblastic
• Radial symmetry
• Phy Cnidaria (hydra, jellies, sea anemones,
  corals)
• No mesoderm GVC gastrovascular cavity (sac with
  a central digestive cavity)
• Hydrostatic skeleton (fluid held under pressure)
• Polyps and medusa
• Cnidocytes (cells used for defense and prey
  capture)
• Nematocysts (stinging capsule)

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The Radiata

• Phy Ctenophora (comb jellies)
• 8 rows of comblike plates of fused cilia (largest
  animals that use cilia for locomotion)
• Tentacles with colloblasts (adhesive structures
  that capture prey)

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Eumetazoa The Acoelomates

• Phy Platyhelminthes (flatworms, flukes,
  tapeworms)
• Bilateral no body cavity
• Predators, scavengers, parasites
• Triplobastic mesoderm but, GVC with only one
  opening
• Some cephalization
• Many pathogens (Schistosoma, Cestodidias)

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Eumetazoa Pseudocoelomates

• Body cavity partially derived from mesodermally
  derived tissue
• Phy Rotifera
• 1st with a complete digestive tract
• Hydrostatic skeleton
• Parthenogenesis type of reproduction in which
  females produce offspring from unfertilized eggs

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Eumetazoa Pseudocoelomates

• Phy Nematoda (roundworms)
• Very widespread group of animals (900,000 sp. ?)
• Cuticle (tough exoskeleton)
• Decomposition and nutrient cycling
• Complete digestive track no circulatory system
• Trichinella spiralis

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The Coelomates Protostomes

• Phylogenetics debated.
• Phy Nemertea (proboscis and ribbon worms)
• Complete digestion and closed circulatory system
  (blood)
• Phy the lophophorates (sea mats, tube worms,
  lamp shells)
• Lophophore Circular shaped body fold with
  ciliated tentacles around the mouth

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The Coelomates Protostomes

• Phy Mollusca (snails, slugs, squid, octopus,
  clams, oysters, chiton)
• Soft body protected by a hard shell of calcium
  carbonate
• Foot (movement), visceral mass (internal organs)
  mantle (secretes shell) radula (rasp-like
  scraping organ)
• Ciliated trochophore larvae (related to Annelida?)

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The Coelomates Protostomes

• Phy Annelida (earthworms, leeches, marine worms)
• True body segmentation (specialization of body
  regions)
• Closed circulatory system
• Metanephridia excretory tubes
• Brainlike cerebral ganglia
• Hermaphrodites, but cross- fertilize

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The Coelomates Protostomes

• Phy Arthropoda trilobites (extinct)
  crustaceans (crabs, lobsters, shrimps) spiders,
  scorpions, ticks (arachnids) insects
  (entomology)
• 2 out of every 3 organisms (most successful of
  all phyla)
• Segmentation, hard exoskeleton (cuticle)
  molting, jointed appendages open circulatory
  system (hemolymph) extensive cephalization

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Insect characteristics

• Outnumber all other forms of life combined
• Malpighian tubules outpocketings of the
  digestive tract (excretion)
• Tracheal system branched tubes that infiltrate
  the body (gas exchange)
• Metamorphosis...
• incomplete young resemble adults, then molt
  into adulthood (grasshoppers)
• complete larval stages (looks different than
  adult) larva to adult through pupal stage

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The Coelomates Deuterostomes

• Phy Echinodermata (sea stars, sea urchins, sand
  dollars, sea lilies, sea cucumbers, sea daisies)
• Spiny skin sessile or slow moving
• Often pentaradial
• Water vascular system by hydraulic canals (tube
  feet)

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Cladograms

• How to make one and interpret one

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Creating a Cladogram
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Building a Cladogram
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Building a Cladogram
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Bear Family Relationships
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Carnivore Connections
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Chordates

• Notochord longitudinal, flexible rod located
  between the digestive and the nerve cord
• Dorsal, hollow nerve cord eventually develops
  into the brain and spinal cord
• Pharyngeal slits become modified for gas
  exchange, jaw support, and/or hearing
• Muscular, postanal tail

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Invertebrate chordates

• Both suspension feeders..
• Subphy Urochordata (tunicates sea squirt)
  mostly sessile marine
• Subphy Cephalochordata (lancelets) marine, sand
  dwellers
• Importance vertebrates closest relatives in
  the fossil record, appear 50 million years before
  first vertebrate
• Paedogenesis precocious development of sexual
  maturity in a larva (link with vertebrates?)

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Subphylum Vertebrata

• Retain chordate characteristics with
  specializations.
• Neural crest group of embryonic cells near
  dorsal margins of closing neural tube
• Pronounced cephalization concentration of
  sensory and neural equipment in the head
• Cranium and vertebral column
• Closed circulatory system with a ventral
  chambered heart

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Superclass Agnatha

• Jawless vertebrates
• Most primitive, living vertebrates
• Ostracoderms (extinct) lamprey and hagfish
  (extant)
• Lack paired appendages cartilaginous skeleton
  notochord throughout life rasping mouth

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Superclass Gnathostomata, I

• Placoderms (extinct) first with hinged jaws and
  paired appendages
• Class Chondrichthyes Sharks, skates, rays
• Cartilaginous fishes well developed jaws and
  paired fins continual water flow over gills (gas
  exchange) lateral line system (water pressure
  changes)
• Life cycles
• Oviparous- eggs hatch outside mothers body
• Ovoviviparous- retain fertilized eggs nourished
  by egg yolk young born live
• Viviparous- young develop within uterus
  nourished by placenta

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Superclass Gnathostomata, II

• Class Osteichthyes
• Ossified (bony) endoskeleton scales
  operculum(gill covering) swim bladder (buoyancy)
• Most numerous vertebrate
• Ray-fined (fins supported by long, flexible
  rays) bass, trout, perch, tuna, herring
• Lobe-finned (fins supported by body skeleton
  extensions) coelocanth
• Lungfishes (gills and lungs) Australian
  lungfish (aestivation)

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Superclass Gnathostomata, III

• Class Amphibia
• 1st tetrapods on land
• Frogs, toads, salamanders, caecilians
• Metamorphosis lack shelled egg moist skin
  for gas exchange

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Superclass Gnathostomata, IV

• Class Reptilia
• Lizards, snakes, turtles, and crocodilians
• Amniote (shelled) egg with extraembryonic
  membranes (gas exchange, waste storage, nutrient
  transfer) absence of feathers, hair, and mammary
  glands ectothermic scales with protein keratin
  (waterproof) lungs ectothermic (dinosaurs
  endothermic?)

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Superclass Gnathostomata, V

• Class Aves
• Birds
• Flight adaptations wings (honeycombed bone)
  feathers (keratin) toothless one ovary
• Evolved from reptiles (amniote egg and leg
  scales) endothermic (4-chambered heart)
• Archaeopteryx (stemmed from an ancestor that gave
  rise to birds)

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Superclass Gnathostomata

• Class Mammalia
• Mammary glands hair (keratin) endothermic
  4-chambered heart large brains teeth
  differentiation
• Evolved from reptilian stock before birds
• Monotremes (egg-laying) platypus echidna
• Marsupials (pouch) opossums, kangaroos, koalas
• Eutherian (placenta) all other mammals

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Order Primates (evolution)

• Characteristics hands feet for grasping
  large brains, short jaws, flat face parental
  care and complex social behaviors
• Suborder Prosimii lemurs, tarsiers
• Suborder Anthropoidea monkeys, apes, humans
  (opposable thumb)
• 45-50 million years ago
• Paleoanthropology study of human origins
• Hominoid great apes humans
• Hominid (narrower classification)
• v australopithecines (all extinct)
• v genus Homo (only 1 exant, sapiens)

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Human evolution

• Misconceptions
• 1- Chimp ancestor (2 divergent branches)
• 2- Step-wise series (coexistence of human
  species)
• 3- Trait unison vs. mosaic evolution (bipedalism,
  upright, enlarged brain)

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The First humans

• Ape-human split (5-7 mya)
• Australopithecus Lucy (4.0 mya)
• Homo habilis Handy Man (2.5 mya)
• Homo erectus first to migrate (1.8 mya)
• Neanderthals (200,000 ya)
• Homo sapiens (1.0 mya?)
• Multiregional model (parallel evolution)
• Out of Africa (replacement evolution)