Chapter 7 Conditioning and Learning

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Chapter 7Conditioning and Learning
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Some Key Terms

• Learning Relatively permanent change in behavior
  due to experience
• Does NOT include temporary changes due to
  disease, fatigue, injury, maturation, or drugs,
  since these do NOT qualify as learning, even
  though they can alter behavior

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Motivation

• Reinforcement Any event that increases the
  probability that a response will recur
• Response Any identifiable behavior
• Internal Faster heartbeat
• Observable Eating, scratching

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Learning More Key Terms

• Antecedents Events that precede a response
• Consequences Effects that follow a response

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Discuss

• Why Does Your
• a. dog drool when you open the can of food before
  the food is given to him?
• b. friend flinch when you tickle him or her?
• c. little sister tremble at the sound of a
  dentists drill?
• d. fellow student begin blushing before he or she
  is called on to give a speech?
• e. stomach churn when the teacher says, Take out
  a piece of paper and put your name at the top?

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Classical Conditioning and Ivan Pavlov

• Russian physiologist who studied digestion
• Used dogs to study salivation when dogs were
  presented with meat powder
• Also known as Pavlovian or respondent
  conditioning
• Reflex Automatic, non-learned response

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Fig. 7-1, p. 220
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Video Basics of Classical Conditioning
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Pavlovian Terms

• Neutral stimulus Stimulus that does not evoke a
  response
• Conditioned stimulus (CS) Stimulus that evokes a
  response because it has been repeatedly paired
  with an unconditioned stimulus
• Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) A stimulus innately
  capable of eliciting a response

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More Pavlovian Terms

• Unconditioned response (UCR) An innate reflex
  response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus
  (UCS)
• Conditioned response (CR) A learned response
  elicited by a conditioned stimulus

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Fig. 7-2, p. 220
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Fig. 7-3, p. 221
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Principles of Classical Conditioning

• Acquisition Training period in conditioning when
  a response is strengthened
• Higher-order conditioning A conditioned stimulus
  (CS) is used to reinforce further learning the
  CS is used as though it were a UCS
• Expectancy Expectation about how events are
  interconnected

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Extinction

• Weakening of a conditioned response through
  removal of reinforcement

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Spontaneous Recovery

• Reappearance of a learned response following
  apparent extinction

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Video Features and Phases of Classical
Conditioning
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Fig. 7-4, p. 222
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Fig. 7-5, p. 222
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More Principles of Classical Conditioning

• Stimulus generalization A tendency to respond to
  stimuli that are similar, but not identical, to a
  conditioned stimulus (e.g., responding to a
  buzzer when the conditioning stimulus was a bell)
• Stimulus discrimination The learned ability to
  respond differently to similar stimuli (e.g.,
  Anya will respond differently to various bells
  alarms, school, timer)

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Discuss

• What is the relationship between stimulus
  generalization and discrimination, gender,
  ethnic, or racial stereotyping, or/and prejudice?
  In what ways are these processes similar or
  different?

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Fig. 7-6a, p. 223
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Fig. 7-6b, p. 223
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Classical Conditioning in Humans

• Phobia Fear that persists even when no realistic
  danger exists (e.g., arachnophobia fear of
  spiders)
• Conditioned emotional response (CER) Learned
  emotional reaction to a previously neutral
  stimulus

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Fixing Phobias

• Desensitization Decreasing fear or anxiety by
  exposing phobic people gradually to feared
  stimuli while they stay calm and relaxed
• Vicarious classical conditioning Learning to
  respond emotionally to a stimulus by observing
  anothers emotional reactions

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Fig. 7-7, p. 224
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Video Classical Conditioning and Emotional
Responses
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Video Watson and Rayner's Research with Little
Albert
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Operant Conditioning (Instrumental Learning)

• Learning is based on the consequences of
  responding we associate responses with their
  consequences
• Law of effect (Thorndike) The probability of a
  response is altered by the effect it has
  responses that lead to desired effects are
  repeated those that lead to undesired effects
  are not

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Operant Reinforcer

• Any event that follows a response and increases
  its likelihood of recurring

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More Operant Conditioning Terms

• Conditioning chamber (Skinner box) Apparatus
  designed to study operant conditioning in animals
• Response-contingent reinforcement Reinforcement
  given after a desired response occurs

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Fig. 7-8, p. 226
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Fig. 7-9, p. 226
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Video Rat in a Skinner Box
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Timing of Reinforcement

• Operant reinforcement most effective when given
  immediately after a correct response
• Response chain A linked series of actions that
  leads to reinforcement
• Superstitious behaviors Behaviors that are
  repeated because they appear to produce
  reinforcement, even though they are not necessary

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Shaping

• Molding responses gradually in a step-by-step
  fashion to a desired pattern
• Successive approximations Ever-closer matches

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Operant Extinction

• When learned responses that are NOT reinforced
  gradually fade away
• Negative attention seeking Using misbehavior to
  gain attention

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Reinforcement

• Positive reinforcement When a response is
  followed by a reward or other positive event
• Negative reinforcement When a response is
  followed by the removal of an unpleasant event
  (e.g., the bells in Fannies car stop when she
  puts the seatbelt on) ends discomfort

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Punishment

• Any event that follows a response and decreases
  the likelihood of it recurring (e.g., a spanking)
• Response cost Removal of a positive reinforcer
  after a response is made (e.g., Bob losing
  Xbox360 privileges)

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Operant Reinforcers

• Primary reinforcer Non-learned and natural
  satisfies physiological needs (e.g., food, water,
  sex)
• Intracranial stimulation (ICS) Natural primary
  reinforcer involves direct activation of brains
  pleasure centers
• Secondary reinforcer Learned reinforcer (e.g.,
  money, grades, approval, praise) gains
  reinforcing properties by associating with a
  primary reinforcer

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Other Types of Reinforcers

• Token reinforcer Tangible secondary reinforcer
  (e.g., money, gold stars, poker chips)
• Social reinforcer attention and approval
  (reinforcers) provided by other people

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Fig. 7-11, p. 228
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Video B. F. Skinner Shaping a Pigeon
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Fig. 7-12, p. 230
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Fig. 7-13, p. 231
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Fig. 7-14, p. 231
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Feedback

• Information about the effect of a response
• Knowledge of results (KR) Informational
  feedback almost always improves learning and
  performance
• (Grades are a form of feedback)

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Programmed Instruction

• Any learning format where information is
  presented in small amounts, gives immediate
  practice, and provides continuous feedback
• Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) Learning is
  aided by computer-presented information and
  exercises
• Educational simulations Explore imaginary
  situations or microworld that simulates
  real-world problems (e.g., The Sims)

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Fig. 7-15, p. 232
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Fig. 7-16, p. 234
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Reinforcement Concepts

• Schedules of reinforcement Plans for determining
  which responses will be reinforced
• Continuous reinforcement A reinforcer follows
  every correct response
• Partial reinforcement Reinforcers do NOT follow
  every response
• Partial reinforcement effect Responses acquired
  with partial reinforcement are more resistant to
  extinction

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Partial Reinforcement Schedules
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Fixed Ratio Schedule (FR)

• A set number of correct responses must be made to
  obtain a reinforcer

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Variable Ratio Schedule (VR)

• Varied number of correct responses must be made
  to get a reinforcer

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Fixed Interval Schedule (FI)

• A reinforcer is given only when a correct
  response is made after a set amount of time has
  passed since the last reinforced response

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Variable Interval Schedule (VI)

• Reinforcement is given for the first correct
  response made after a varied amount of time has
  passed since the last reinforced response

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Discuss

• Think about which schedule works best for
  completing items on an assembly line, assuming
  workers are paid for each item assembled.
• Which schedule works best in a casino when
  someone plays the slot machines?
• Which schedule works best when someone has to
  babysit a child for a certain number of hours?

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Fig. 7-17, p. 235
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Stimulus Control

• Stimuli that consistently precede a rewarded
  response tend to influence when and where the
  response will occur
• Operant stimulus generalization Tendency to
  respond to stimuli similar to those that preceded
  operant reinforcement
• Operant stimulus discrimination Occurs when one
  learns to differentiate between antecedent
  stimuli that signal either an upcoming reward or
  a nonreward condition

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Punishment

• Punisher Any consequence that reduces the
  frequency of a target behavior
• Keys Timing, consistency, and intensity
• Severe punishment Intense punishment, capable of
  suppressing a response for a long period
• Mild punishment Weak punishment usually slows
  responses temporarily

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Discuss

• What view did your family and friends of your
  parents take toward physical punishment? What
  cultural factors explain why some parents spank
  and others dont? How has this influenced your
  views of punishment?

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Punishment Concepts

• Aversive stimulus Stimulus that is painful or
  uncomfortable (e.g., a shock)
• Escape learning Learning to make a response to
  end an aversive stimulus
• Avoidance learning Learning to make a response
  to avoid, postpone, or prevent discomfort (e.g.,
  not going to a doctor or dentist)
• Punishment may also increase aggression

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Exercise

• Alphabet writing exercise

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Fig. 7-20, p. 240
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Cognitive Learning

• Cognitive learning Higher-level learning
  involving thinking, knowing, understanding, and
  anticipating
• Cognitive map Internal images or other mental
  representations of an area (maze, city, etc.)
  that underlie an ability to choose alternate
  paths to the same goal

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Exercise

• On a piece of paper, draw a map of the campus.

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More Learning Styles

• Latent learning Occurs without obvious
  reinforcement and is not demonstrated (or is
  hidden) until reinforcement is provided
• Rote learning Takes place mechanically, through
  repetition and memorization, or by learning a set
  of rules
• Discovery learning Based on insight and
  understanding

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Fig. 7-21, p. 242
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Fig. 7-22, p. 243
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Modeling or Observational Learning (Albert
Bandura)

• Model Someone who serves as an example in
  observational learning
• Occurs by watching and imitating actions of
  another person or by noting consequences of a
  persons actions
• Occurs before direct practice is allowed

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Exercise

• Learning to tie your shoe

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Fig. 7-23, p. 244
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Steps to Successful Modeling

• Pay attention to model
• Remember what was done
• Observer must be able to reproduce modeled
  behavior
• If a model is successful or his/her behavior is
  rewarded, behavior more likely to recur
• Bandura created modeling theory with classic
  Bo-Bo doll (inflatable clown) experiments

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Fig. 7-24, p. 245
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Self-Managed Behavioral Principles

• Choose a target behavior
• Record a baseline
• Establish goals
• Choose reinforcers

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Self-Managed Behavioral Principles(continued)

• Record your progress
• Reward successes
• Adjust your plan as you learn more about your
  behavior

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Premack Principle

• Any high-frequency response can be used to
  reinforce a low-frequency response (e.g., no
  Nintendo DS until you finish your homework)
• Self-recording Self-management based on keeping
  records of response frequencies

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How to Break Bad Habits

• Alternate responses Try to get the same
  reinforcement with a new response
• Extinction Try to discover what is reinforcing
  an unwanted response and remove, avoid, or delay
  the reinforcement
• Response chains Scramble the chain of events
  that leads to an undesired response
• Cues and antecedents Try to avoid, narrow down,
  or remove stimuli that elicit the bad habit

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How to Break Bad Habits (cont) Behavioral
Contracting

• Behavioral contract Formal agreement stating
  behaviors to be changed and consequences that
  apply written contract
• State the rewards you will get, privileges you
  will forfeit, or punishments you must accept
• Type the contract, sign it, and get a person you
  trust to sign it