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Anatomy

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Title: Anatomy


1
Anatomy Physiology
2
What is Anatomy Physiology?
  • Anatomy
  • Is the study of structure

3
What is Anatomy Physiology?
  • Anatomy
  • Subdivisions of anatomy
  • Gross anatomy
  • Microanatomy
  • Cellular
  • Histology
  • Systemic anatomy
  • Regional anatomy

4
What is Anatomy Physiology?
  • Physiology
  • Is the study of function
  • Structure determines function

5
Anatomical Position
6
Anatomical Terminology
  • Directional Terms

7
Anatomical Terminology
  • Directional Terms

Peripheral toward the surface
8
Anatomical Terminology
  • Directional Terms

Superficial toward the surface
Deep Away from the surface
9
Anatomical Planes
  • Sagittal Plane

divides the body into a right and a left half
  • mid sagittal
  • parasagittal

10
Anatomical Planes
  • Frontal or Coronal

divides the body into a front and a back
11
Anatomical Planes
  • Transverse or horizontal

divides the body into upper and lower portions
12
Anatomical Terminology
  • Planes

13
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
  • Classify each plane illustrated below

horizontal
frontal
mid-sagittal
14
Hierarchy of Organization
  • Cells
  • Tissues
  • Organs
  • Organ Systems

15
Organ System Overview
  1. Integumentary System
  2. Skeletal System
  3. Muscular System
  4. Nervous System
  5. Endocrine System
  6. Cardiovascular System
  7. Lymphatic System
  8. Respiratory System
  9. Digestive System
  10. Urinary System
  11. Reproductive System

16
Life Processes
  • metabolism
  • responsiveness
  • movement
  • growth
  • Differentiation
  • Reproduction

17
Organ Systems Integumentary System

Function Protection
Organs/Components Epidermis and
Dermis Finger/toe nails Hair Sweat glands

18
Organ Systems Skeletal System

Function provide support for the body, to
protect delicate internal organs and to provide
attachment sites for the organs.


Organs/Components Bones, cartilage, joints
19
Organ Systems Muscular System


Function provide support and movement


Organs/Components skeletal muscle, cardiac
muscle, smooth muscle, tendons

20
Organ Systems Circulatory System


Function transport nutrients, gases (such as
oxygen and CO2), hormones and wastes through the
body.

Organs Heart, blood vessels and blood

21
Organ Systems Nervous System


Function directs behaviour and movement and,
along with the endocrine system, controls
physiological processes

Organs Brain, spinal cord and peripheral nerves.

22
Respiratory System



Function provide gas exchange between the blood
and the environment for the organs.

Organs Nose, trachea and lungs. bronchi

23
Digestive System

Function breakdown and absorb nutrients that
are necessary for growth and maintenance

Organs Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small and
large intestines

24
Excretory System
Function filter out cellular wastes, toxins and
excess water from the circulatory system
Organs Kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra
25
Endocrine System


Function relay chemical messages through the
body and in conjunction with the nervous system,
these chemical messages help control
physiological processes

Organs hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid,
ovaries/testies, and adrenal glands


26
Reproductive System


Function manufacture cells that allow
reproduction
Organs ovaries, oviducts, uterus, vagina and
mammary glands testes, seminal vesicles and penis


27
Anatomical Terminology
  • Directional Terms

28
Anatomical Terminology
  • Directional Terms

29
Anatomical Terminology
  • Regional Terms

30
Anatomical Terminology
  • Regional Terms

31
Anatomical Terminology
  • Regional Terms

32
Anatomical Terminology
  • Regional Terms

33
Anatomical Terminology
  • Regional Terms

34
ABDOMINOPELVIC QUADRANTS
Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ)
Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ)
Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ)
Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ)
35
Anatomical Terminology
  • Abdominopelvic Regions

36
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37
BodyCavities
Cranial Cavity
Dorsal
Thoracic
Pericardial
Spinal
Ventral
Abdominal
Pelvic
Abdomino-pelvic
38
HOMEOSTASIS
  • Is maintaining the internal environment within
    physiological limits
  • Internal environment refers to the extracellular
    fluids (EFC)
  • Includes lymph, plasma and interstitial fluid
  • The maintenance of homeostasis results in health

39
HOMEOSTASIS
  • And Stress
  • Homeostatic mechanisms attempt to counteract the
    effects of the stress and bring the condition
    back to normal

40
HOMEOSTASIS
  • Homeostasis is regulated by the nervous system
    and endocrine systems

41
HOMEOSTASIS
  • And Feedback Systems (Loops)
  • a cycle of events in which information about the
    status of a condition is continually monitored
    and fed back (reported) to a central control
    region.
  • Any stress that changes a controlled condition is
    called a stimulus.

42
HOMEOSTASIS
  • And Feedback Systems (Loops)
  • three basic components
  • The control center
  • The receptor
  • The effector

43
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44
HOMEOSTASIS
  • And Feedback Systems (Loops)
  • Negative Feedback Systems
  • a.  Reverses the original stimuls
  • b.  Tend to maintain conditions that
    require frequent fine tuning
  • Positive Feedback Systems
  • a.  enhances the original stimulus
  • b. tend to regulate conditions that do
    not occur often and do not require
    continual fine-tuning

45
And Disease
HOMEOSTASIS
  • Disease
  • a.  any change from a state of health,
    characterized by symptoms signs
  • b. Local vs. systemic disease

46
Homeostasis And Disease
  • Symptoms vs. Symptoms
  • a. Symptoms
  • are subjective changes in body functions
    that are not apparent to an observer

b. Signs are objective
changes that a clinician can observe and
measure
47
What is Anatomy Physiology?
  • Anatomy
  • Is the study of structure
  • Subdivisions of anatomy
  • surface anatomy
  • gross anatomy
  • systemic anatomy
  • regional anatomy
  • radiographic anatomy
  • developmental anatomy
  • embryology
  • cytology
  • pathological anatomy

48
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
  • CH 2

49
I. Atoms and molecules
  • A. Atoms are the smallest stable units of matter.
  • Nucleus
  • Protons
  • Neutrons
  • 2. Electron cloud
  • Electrons
  • 3. Atoms are electrically neutral
  • protons electrons

50
I. Atoms and molecules
  • B. Elements
  • Element A substance that is made of only one
    kind of atom
  • Contain atoms with the same number of protons
  • Called atomic number
  • Differ in number of electrons and
    neutrons
  • 2. 92 naturally occurring
  • 3. Principle elements of human body
  • O, C, H, N, Ca, P

51
II. Chemical bonding
  • A. Ionic bonds
  • Form when one atom gives up an e- and another
    atom gains that e-
  • cations
  • anions
  • 2. Properties of Ionic Compounds
  • readily dissolve in water
  • dissociate in water into their cations and
    anions.

52
II. Chemical bonding
  • B. Covalent bonds
  • Form when two atoms share electrons, forming a
    molecule
  • Form a molecule
  • Diatomic mc H2, 02, N2
  • 2. Kinds of covalent bonds
  • Nonpolar Covalent bonds
  • Polar Covalent bonds

3. Properties of Covalent Cmpds strong bonds
53
II. Chemical bonding
  • C. Hydrogen bonds
  • Form between two adjacent polar mc containing H
    and O, N, or F
  • Ex between water mc
  • 2. Properties of Covalent Cmpds
  • Very weak
  • Important in determining the shape of large
    biological mc such as protein and DNA
  • Important in determining characteristics of water

54
II. Chemical bonding
  • D. States of Matter
  • Are determined by the amount of bonding that
    occurs between mc
  • Solid Liquid Gas
  • 2. Properties of Covalent Cmpds
  • Water is the only substance that can occur in all
    three states within temperature ranges consistent
    with life

55
Solid
Liquid
Gas
56
III. Chemical reactions
  • A. Fundamental Concepts
  • Metabolism
  • Reactants
  • 2. Products
  • 3. Chemical reaction
  • Energy
  • Potential Energy
  • Kinetic Energy
  • Law of Conservation of Matter and Energy

57
III. Chemical reactions
  • B. Types of reactions
  • Decomposition
  • AB ? A B
  • Catabolic processes
  • Exergonic
  • Hydrolysis

58
III. Chemical reactions
  • B. Types of reactions
  • 2. Synthesis
  • A B ? AB
  • Anabolic processes
  • Endergonic
  • Dehydration Synthesis

59
III. Chemical reactions
  • B. Types of reactions
  • Exchange
  • AB CD ? AD CB
  • Decomposition and synthesis may be paired.

60
III. Chemical reactions
  • C. Reversible reactions
  • 1. Reactants become products while products
    become reactants
  • A B ? AB
  • Continues until equilibrium is reached
  • 2. Very important to biological systems
  • ATP ? ADP P

61
III. Chemical reactions
  • D. Enzymes and Chemical reactions
  • 1. Enzymes are important reaction
    catalysts in metabolic systems
  • Speed up the reaction
  • Allow the reaction to occur at lower than normal
    temperatures
  • Lower the activation energy
  • 2. Are not altered or used up by the reaction

62
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63
IV. Inorganic compounds
  • Generally Concepts
  • Dont contain both C H
  • 2. Important organic cmpds in the human body
  • CO2
  • O2
  • H2O
  • inorganic acids, bases, and salts

64
IV. Inorganic compounds
  • B. Water
  • Excellent solvent because it is polar.
  • Solute solvent solution

65
IV. Inorganic compounds
  • B. Water
  • Forms a reaction medium, particularly in
    hydrolysis reactions which break down larger
    molecules.

66
IV. Inorganic compounds
  • B. Water
  • 3. High heat capacity and thus water stays in a
    liquid form over a broad range of temps.
  • 4. Water is an important reactant in some types
    of chemical reactions.

67
IV. Inorganic compounds
  • B. Water
  • Water carries heat with it when it evaporates -
    thus water helps stabilize body temperature.
  • Effective lubricant in joints and within body
    cavities and thus serves a protective function.

68
IV. Inorganic compounds
  • C. Aqueous solutions and electrolytes
  • Electrolytes
  • Water soluble inorganic cmpds
  • Are capable of conducting an electric current
  • 2. Electrolytes and the electrical activity they
    can generate are the basis for
  • nerve impulses
  • muscle action

69
IV. Inorganic compounds
  • C. Aqueous solutions and electrolytes
  • 3. Homeostasis of electrolytes in body fluids
  • kidneys (rid body of excess ions)
  • digestive (absorb ions from diet)
  • skeletal (store and release ions)
  • 4. Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Mc

70
IV. Inorganic compounds
  • D. Colloids and suspensions
  • Colloids
  • are solutions in which large and complex organic
    mc are dispersed
  • mc stay in solution indefinitely
  • Example proteins
  • Suspensions
  • Contain large particles that will settle out if
    left undisturbed
  • Example blood

71
IV. Inorganic compounds
  • E. Acids/Bases / Salts and pH

72
IV. Inorganic compounds
  • E. Acids/Bases / Salts and pH
  • Acids
  • Are substances which form H ions when in
    solution
  • (the stronger the acid the more H ions it
    contains)

73
IV. Inorganic compounds
  • E. Acids/Bases / Salts and pH
  • Acids

- can break bonds, denature proteins, and
disrupt cell and tissue functions
74
IV. Inorganic compounds
  • E. Acids/Bases / Salts and pH
  • Acids
  • pH ? 7
  • Examples
  • Carbonic acid
  • HCl

The lower the pH the stronger the acid
75
IV. Inorganic compounds
  • E. Acids/Bases / Salts and pH
  • 2. Bases
  • Are substances which form OH- ions when in
    solution
  • (the stronger the base the more OH- ions it
    contains)
  • pH ? 7
  • (the stronger the base the higher the pH)

Normal pH of blood is 7.35
76
IV. Inorganic compounds
  • E. Acids/Bases / Salts and pH
  • 2. Bases
  • Strong bases are very damaging to cell processes
  • Example NH4OH

77
IV. Inorganic compounds
  • E. Acids/Bases / Salts and pH
  • 3. Salts
  • Contain a cation other than H and an anion other
    than OH
  • dissociate in water
  • Are strong electrolytes
  • pH 7

78
IV. Inorganic compounds
  • E. Acids/Bases / Salts and pH
  • 3. Salts
  • Importance in the body
  • provide ions for transport of substances into and
    out of cells
  • function in muscle contraction
  • function in nerve impulse conduction

79
IV. Inorganic compounds
  • E. Acids/Bases / Salts and pH
  • Changes in the acid-base balance are resisted by
  • extracellular and intracellular chemical buffers
  • respiratory regulation
  • renal regulation

80
IV. Inorganic compounds
  • E. Acids/Bases / Salts and pH
  • 5. Buffers
  • compounds help stabilize the pH of a solution by
    turning a strong acid or base into a weaker one
  • usually consist of a weak acid and its related
    salt
  • Example
  • bicarbonate ion buffers the blood

81
V. Organic compounds
  • A. General
  • Long-chain molecules
  • Always contain C and H
  • Usually contain O
  • Linked by covalent bonds
  • Many are soluble in water
  • Classes of Organic Cmpds
  • Carbohydrates
  • Lipids
  • Proteins
  • Nucleic acids

82
V. Organic compounds
  • Carbohydrates
  • Contain C H O in a near
    121 ratio
  • Most important function

Primary energy source for the cell
83
V. Organic compounds
  • Carbohydrates
  • Kinds
  • Monosaccharides
  • Simple sugars
  • 3-7 carbons in length
  • Example Glucose (C6H12O6)
  • Polysaccharides
  • Most complex sugars
  • Example Starch Glycogen
  • Disaccharides
  • Double sugars
  • Example Lactose, sucrose

84
V. Organic compounds
  • Lipids
  • Contain C H O in very large numbers
  • Include
  • Fats, oils and waxes
  • Common examples
  • triglycerides
  • steroids
  • phospholipids

85
V. Organic compounds
  • Lipids
  • 5. Insoluble in water
  • 4. Importance
  • long term energy storage
  • structural component of cell membranes
    (phospholipids)

86
B. Lipids
  • 5. Kinds
  • Fatty Acids
  • saturated
  • C have only single bonds
  • unsaturated
  • C have 1 or more double bonds.
  • polyunsaturated
  • double bonds

occur at multiple sites
87
V. Organic compounds
  • Lipids
  • 5. Kinds
  • Eicosanoids
  • Have short C chains
  • Prostaglandins local hormones
  • Leukotrienes coordinate response to injury or
    disease

88
B. Lipids
  • 5. Kinds
  • Glycerides
  • composed of fatty acids and glycerol
  • Function
  • Energy source
  • Insulation
  • Protection

89
B. Lipids
  • 5. Kinds
  • Steroids
  • lg lipid mc
  • examples cholesterol, testoterone, estrogen
  • Function
  • Stabilize cell membrane
  • Sex hormones
  • Regulate metabolism and mineral balance
  • Formation of bile

90
B. Lipids
  • 5. Kinds
  • Phospholipd
  • structural lipids that help form and maintain
    cell membranes

polar head - hydrophilic nonpolar tail-
hydrophobic
91
V. Organic compounds
  • Proteins
  • Examples
  • Keratin, hemoglobin
  • 1. Basics
  • the most abundant organic components in the body
  • contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.
  • If made of more than 30 amino acids it is called
    a polypeptide

92
C. Proteins
Made from amino acids (20 exist) held together by
peptide bonds
93
V. Organic compounds
  • C. Proteins

2. Functions Support, movement, transport,
buffers, regulate reactions, coordination,
control, defense 3. Structure Primary,
Secondary, Tertiary, Quatranary
94
Peptide bonds
95
Shape determines function
96
V. Organic compounds
  • C. Proteins
  • 4. Shape Determines function
  • Small changes in pH, temperature, ionic
    composition can denature a protein (affects
    protein structure) cause it not to function
    properly
  • 5. Enzymes
  • Biological catalysts
  • Speed up a reaction without being used up in
    the reaction

97
V. Organic compounds
  • C. Proteins
  • 5. Enzymes
  • Biological catalysts
  • Speed up a reaction without being used up in
    the reaction

98
V. Organic compounds
  • C. Proteins
  • 5. Enzymes
  • lower the needed activation energy

99
V. Organic compounds
  • C. Proteins
  • 5. Enzymes
  • Some poisons bond permanently to an enzyme

100
V. Organic compounds
  • C. Proteins
  • 6. Glycoproteins
  • Protein carbohydrate
  • Important in cell recognition

101
V. Organic compounds
  • C. Proteins
  • 6. Glycoproteins
  • Function
  • As enzymes
  • As antibodies
  • As hormones
  • As cell membrane components
  • To secrete mucins which absorb water to form
    mucus

102
V. Organic compounds
  • D. Nucleic Acids
  • lg organic mc that have
  • C, H, O, N and P
  • Function
  • store and process information
  • Structure
  • made of nucleotides
  • Phosphate, sugar, base
  • (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, uracil)
  • linked by dehydration synthesis

103
V. Organic compounds
  • D. Nucleic Acids
  • Structure
  • made of nucleotides

104
V. Organic compounds
  • D. Nucleic Acids
  • Kinds
  • DNA
  • Important in inheritance
  • Codes for and directs the synthesis of proteins
  • Regulates cell metabolism
  • Found in nucleus
  • Double stranded
  • Sugar is Deoxyribose
  • Bases are A G C T
  • Able to self replicate

105
DNA STRUCTURE
106
V. Organic compounds
  • D. Nucleic Acids
  • Kinds
  • RNA
  • comes in several forms (mRNA, tRNA, rRNA) that
    cooperate to manufacture proteins
  • Single stranded
  • Found in nucleus and cytoplasm
  • Bases are U A G C
  • Sugar is ribose

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108
E. High Energy Compounds
V. Organic compounds
  1. Energy currency cells is ATP
  • ATP made of 3 phosphate groups attached to an
    adenosine (composed of adenine and ribose)

109
  • E. High Energy Compounds

2. Energy is stored when P is added to ADP
(energonic)
110
  • E. High Energy Compounds

2. Energy is released when P is added to
ADP (exergonic)
111
E. High Energy Compounds
  • 3. Another form, called cyclic-AMP is used as
    an intracellular signal.
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