PowerPoint-Pr

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Hunter-Gatherer societies and traditional
agriculture
Maria Lackner 0025209 Tamara Neubauer 0201045 Mi
rjam Weber 0052101
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Structure of the presentation

1. How to measure energy in human-environment
   interactions (general considerations)
2. Energy flows in Hunter-Gatherer and early
   agricultural societies
3. Energy flows of traditional agriculture in Pura
   (India)

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How to measure energy in human-environment
interactions (general considerations)
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How to measure energy in human-environment
interactions
general questions

• What problems do we encounter when assessing
  energy in human-environment interactions?
• How do we estimate human energy?
• How do we assess the energetics of human
  labor?
• How do we measure energy efficiency?

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How to measure energy in human-environment
interactions
Problem No. 1Focus on commercial energy in
statistics
Example India energy use/capita U.N. coal
equivalent of 150 to 190 kg but total energy use
from all sources 490 kg
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How to measure energy in human-environment
interactions
Problem No. 2Estimation of Human Energy
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How to measure energy in human-environment
interactions
Problem No. 2Estimation of Human Energy
Pimentel et al.
580 kcal/hour
energy utilized in farm labor total food energy
input of a fulltime farm worker (40 hours a week)
Makhijani Poole
870 kcal/ hour
energy in the food intake of all persons in a
farming village gross energy input for human
labor
250 kcal/ hour
Passmore Durnin
metabolic energy used in different work
activities (oxygen consumed, carbondioxide
exhaled)
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How to measure energy in human-environment
interactions
Problem No. 3Estimation of Animal Energy
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How to measure energy in human-environment
interactions
Problem No. 3Estimation of Animal Energy
1a) net energy input (feed energy energy in
dung) energy in milk and other
products 1b) consideration of the herds milk
production
12.1 x 10³ kcal/h
10.9 x 10³ kcal/h
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How to measure energy in human-environment
interactions
Problem No. 3Estimation of Animal Energy
2) energy/year consumed by the bullock (feed)
energy in dung / hours worked gross
energy expenditure per working hour 3) weekly
energy expenditure of a bullock is ca. 43 of ist
total food energy intake for the week
5.3 x 10³ kcal/h
2.3 x 10³ kcal/h
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How to measure energy in human-environment
interactions
Problem No. 4Energy efficiency which
parameters?
e.g. maximization of economic profit vs.
minimization of risk e.g. maximization of crop
yield vs. minimization of ecosystem
degradation
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How to measure energy in human-environment
interactions
Problem No. 5power generation
total energy requirements sum of 2 flows of
energy

1. flow used directly to generate power
2. flow calculated as the energy spent in the
   construction and maintenance of the structure
   delivering power

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How to measure energy in human-environment
interactions
Problem No.6power level is often not considered
work carrying 400 kg of sand upstairs 5 m of
height
400 kg
5 m
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How to measure energy in human-environment
interactions
Problem No.6power level is often not considered
work carrying 400 kg of sand upstairs 5 m of
height

• 3 possibilities
• 5 trips carrying 80 kg
• 20 trips carrying 20 kg
• 100 trips carrying 4 kg

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How to measure energy in human-environment
interactions
Problem No.7difficulty in quantifying a defined
work done
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How to measure energy in human-environment
interactions
Problem No.7difficulty in quantifying a defined
work done
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How to measure energy in human-environment
interactions
factors related to the level of energy
consumption per capita for rural/poor societies
based on manpower

1. body size
2. quality of the diet
3. exosomatic energy flow (energy flows converted
   to useful work outside the human body)

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How to measure energy in human-environment
interactions
Literature

• Roger Revelle Energy Use in Rural India
• Giampietro Pimentel Energy efficiency
  assessing the interaction between humans and
  their environment
• Giampietro Pimentel Assessment of the
  energetics of human labor

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• Energy flows in Hunter-Gatherer and early
  agricultural societies

• Energy flows in gerneral
• The Kung! Bushmen hunter and gatherers
• The Tsembaga early agriculture society
• The energetic benefits of domestication

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Energy flows in Hunter-Gatherer societies
(Pimentel 1996)

• Wherefore energy? Obtaining food collecting
  firewood
• Basal metabolism 1080 kcal

Examples for Energy requirements for various activities In kcal/h Examples for Energy requirements for various activities In kcal/h
Sitting, standing relaxed 20
Walking 130-240
Climbing 400-900
Running very quickly 1240
Walking loaded (10kg) 400
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Energy flows in Hunter-Gatherer societies
(Pimentel 1996)

• Wherefrom energy? Wild plants and animals (wood
  for fire ?)
• Total annual production of plant biomass in a
  temperate
• region averages about
• 2400kg per ha.
• Under favourable
• conditions this quantity
• might support an animal
• and microbe biomass
• of about 200kg per ha.

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Energy flows in Hunter-Gatherer societies
(Pimentel 1996)

• How much land do hunter-gatherers need?
• Pimentel 40 hectare (ideal ecosystem)
• Modern-day hunter-gatherers need much more
  (150-250ha)
• In the northwestern Canadian region about 14.000
  ha per person
• In subarctic lands up to 50.000 ha per person
• !Kung Bushmen about 1000ha.
• Comparison Austria is 84000 km2 8.400.000 ha

200.000
40.000
8.400
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Energy flows in Hunter-Gatherer societies - The
!Kung Bushmen
Lee, 1969

• Population density 1 person per 1040 ha
• Most of the daily calorie intake of the !Kung
  Bushmen (56) are mongongo nuts.
• A critical decision for the bushmen is where to
  locate their camps. Food and water must be near
  enough. They occupy a camp for a period of weeks
  and eat their way out of it.
• Energy Output/Input ratio falls with distance
• (19km 2 day trip)

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Energy flows in Hunter-Gatherer societies - The
!Kung Bushmen
Output/Input analysis of !Kung bushmen gathering
mongongo nuts at a distance of 4,8 km from their
camp
hours Kcal
Travel to location of nuts 1,2 270
Collecting nuts 3 675
Return trip (12,5kg nuts) 1,2 462
Sleep 10,5 473
Other activities 8 800
INPUT 24 2.680
OUTPUT (shelled nuts 1,75kg) 10.500
Output/Input ratio 41 41
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Energy flows in early agricultural societies
The Tsembaga
Rappaport, 1968

• Population density 1 person per 4 hectare
• Early agricultural society in New Guinea
• Tropical mountainous ecosystem, rainy
• Swidden-type agricultural system
  (Brandrodungsfeldbau)
• Food of plant origin (taro, sweet potatoe, fruit,
  leaves, bananas, yams) 99
• Some pigs

Early agriculture no fossil fuels, no animal
power
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Energy flows in early agricultural societies
The Tsembaga
Output/Input analysis of New Guinea swidden
agriculture for 1 ha of mixed crops
Hours/ha Kcal/ha
Clearing underbush 175 70.000
Fencing garden 84 42.000
Weeding and burning 78 23.400
Planting and all weeding 742 222.600
Harvesting 277 83.100
Axe, machete - 16860
INPUTS 1.860 739.160
OUTPUT (Crop yield) 11.384.462
OUTPUT/INPUT RATIO 151
Energetical input of wood and vegetation for fire
?
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Livestock in early agricultural societies The
Tsembaga

• Output/Input ratio of pigs 12 Why?
• Stock (Pimentel)
• Distribution of surplus wealth (Rappaport)
• Kaiko ritual (pigs for the ancestors lt carrying
  capacity)
• Energetic benefits of domestication
• Non convertable grasses ? usable energy
• Animal power ? energy source (beast of burden)
• Need of protein ?Herding more energy efficient as
  hunting

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Energy flows in Hunter-Gatherer societies

• Food, Energy and Society, David and Maria
  Pimentel, 1996.
• Chapter 6 Hunter Gatherers and early
  agriculture.
• Chapter 7 Early livestock systems and animal
  power.

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AgricultureAn example from India
www.export.gov.il

• Pura 1977

www.faorap-apcar.org
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Pura 1977

• South India
• Karnataka State
• - 56 households
• - 357 people
• - 671 meters above sealevel
• - Annual rainfall of 127 centimeters

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Overview
? Energy consumption patterns of Pura ? Ranking
of energy sources ? Energy- Activity Matrix ?
Ranking of activities requiring energy ? End Uses
of Human Energy ? Health Hazards for the people
of Pura
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Energy Consumption Patterns
Agriculture An Example from India

• Energy used for
• - agricultural operations
• domestic activities
• lighting
• Industry

www.news.bbc.co.uk
www.images.wir.org
www.images.wir.org
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Ranking of energy sources per year

1. Fuelwood (89)
2. Human energy (7)
3. Kerosene (2)
4. Bullock energy (1)
5. Electricity (1)

www.rcfa.cfan.org
www.glamro.gov.uk
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Energy- Source Activity Matrix
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Ranking of activities requiring energy

1. Domestic activities (91)
2. Industry (4)
3. Agriculture (3)
4. Lighting (2)

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Domestic Activities like cooking

• Human energy 19
• Fuelwood 80

www.welshartsarchive.org.uk
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Domestic activities like grazing livestock

• Human energy 46

www.jupiterimages.com
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www.rediff.com
Women Children Men
Gathering fuelwood 42 25 33
Fetching water 80 14 6
Grazing livestock 15 33 52
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End Uses of Human Energy
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The use of low level energy sources in Pura
causes

• high human time input
• high labor effort
• health hazards

www.fao.org
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Why health hazards?

• Dependence on biomass cooking fuels
• fuelwood, dung cakes, crop wastes,...
• high toxic emissions like carbon monoxide,
  suspended particulates, hydrocarbon!

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Health Effects

• Production Skin infections, enteric
  infections,...
• Collection Trauma, allergic reactions, bites
  from reptiles,...
• Combustion respiratory irritation, burns,
  chronic bronchitis,...

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A Greater Health Impact for women and girls (1)

• daily subsistance chores lead to a higher calorie
  expenditure/day (not compensated by food intake)
• Domestic tasks more often done by women or girls
  are perennial and not seasonal
• Depletion by repeated births

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A Greater Health Impact for women and girls (2)

• especially traditional rice cultivation methods
  cause complications for pregnant women
• Increase of stillbirths, premature births and
  neonatal mortality while rice during rice
  planting months
• Lack of adequate water increase of genito-
  urinary and reproductive tract infections which
  stay untreated für years

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Facit low levels of energy services are a
serious problem!

• - People of Pura depend on human energy and
  primitive technologies for their daily survival

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Literature

• Srilatha Batliwala - Energy as an obstacle to
  improved living standards
• Roger Revelle - Energy Use in Rural India

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Discussion
Hunter-Gatherers traditional agriculture
Differences (1)

• population density
• energy efficiency (input/output) land use
  effort for energy production
• division of labor

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Discussion
Hunter-Gatherers traditional agriculture
Differences (2)

• unregulated/regulated solar system
• colonization
• domestication
• stock
• scarcity of energy