RUSSIA AND JAPAN: INDUSTRIALIZATION OUTSIDE OF THE WEST

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RUSSIA AND JAPAN INDUSTRIALIZATION OUTSIDE OF
THE WEST

• 1850 1914

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OVERVIEW

• Russia and Japan
• Managed to avoid Western dominance
• Industrialize to achieve economic autonomy.
• Japan and Russia Compared
• Proved to be the most flexible politically
• Strain of industrialization produced a series of
  revolutions in Russia
• As late industrializing nations
• There were substantial similarities between
  Russia and Japan.
• Both nations had prior experience with cultural
  imitation
• Japan from China
• Russia from Byzantium and the West.
• Both had achieved more effective central
  governments during the 17th and 18th centuries.
• As both countries industrialized, they came into
  conflict over territorial ambitions in Asia.

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MAPPING RUSSIA
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RUSSIA BEFORE REFORM

• Russian leaders in the 18th and early 19th
  centuries
• Isolate Russia from European revolution,
  Napoleon completed shift to conservatism
• Tsar Alexander I sponsored Holy Alliance, linked
  conservative monarchies together
• Russian Intellectuals (Intelligentsia)
• Remained connected to western European trends
• This connection that worried the elite.
• 1825 and After
• The Decembrist uprising
• Western-oriented military officers attempted a
  coup
• Defeated by Imperial forces and members hung
• Tsar Nicholas I
• Turned to repressive conservatism
• Russia also lacked substantial middle or artisan
  classes
• Both helped Russia avoid mid-19th century
  revolutions.
• Official Nationality, Orthodoxy, Autocracy
  Formal name to Nicholas policies
• The tsar suppressed Polish nationalism in 1831
  and demanded assimilation of minorities
• Insisted on a traditional church and approach to
  politics especially autocracy
• Pressed southward against the Ottoman Empire.
• Russia supported nationalist movements in the
  Balkans as a means of weakening the Turks.

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ECONOMIC, SOCIAL PROBLEMS

• The reality of Russias position
• Economy remained primarily agrarian
• Fell behind the West in terms of production and
  trade
• To maintain the profitability of grain exports
• Tighter labor obligations were imposed on the
  peasantry
• Tendency to export grain to raise money left many
  hungry
• The Crimean War, 1854-1856
• Demonstrated how far Russia had fallen behind the
  West
• British, French forces drove the Russians from
  the Crimea
• Loss convinced Tsar Alexander II that reform was
  needed

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IMAGINING THE CRIMEAN WAR
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EMANCIPATION OF RUSSIAN SERFS

• The Peasant Problem
• In order to establish a more vigorous economy
• Some attempt had to be made to resolve the
  peasant crisis.
• Belief that a freer labor force could increase
  profitability.
• Western criticism of Russian social injustice
  also stung Russian sensibilities.
• Series of minor peasant rebellions in 1850s
  stimulated the movement for reform.
• Tsar Alexander II emancipated the serfs in 1861
• The freed serfs got most of the land
• Aristocracy retained political and economic power
• Serfs remained tied to their villages
• Until they could pay for the land they received.
• Redemption payments, taxes kept peasants in
  poverty
• The emancipation produced a larger urban labor
  force
• But failed to stimulate agricultural production
• Slow pace of change engendered social
  dissatisfaction
• Led to regional peasant uprisings, peasant
  distrust

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RUSSIAN SERFDOM
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REFORMS AND EARLY INDUSTRIALIZATION

• Alexander II carried out other reforms
• Issued new law codes, established regional
  councils (zemstvoes) for input on local decisions
• Began military reforms
• Literacy spread more widely in society with the
  rise of a mass market in popular literary forms
• Women gained power slightly through greater
  access to education
• Somewhat loosened patriarchal authority
• Industrialization and the State
• Russia lacked a substantial middle class state
  handled capital formation, investment
• Russia created a substantial railroad network in
  the 1870s
• Better transportation permitted more efficient
  use of Russia's abundant natural resources
• The railroad also facilitated shipment of grain
  to the West, which in turn helped finance
  industrialization.
• 1880s 1910s and the Results of
  Industrialization
• Modern factories had begun to develop in major
  Russian cities
• Count Sergei Witte, minister of finance from 1892
  to 1903, enacted high tariffs to protect new
  industries.
• Witte also encouraged Western investment in
  Russian industrialization.
• As a result, nearly one half of Russia's
  industrial businesses were foreign-owned.
• By 1900, Russia ranked fourth in steel production
  and second in petroleum production.
• Russian factories were typically enormous but
  technologically inferior.
• Agriculture also lagged behind Western standards
  of productivity.

Zemstvo Stamp
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Russian Foreign Policy

• Post-1855
• Undo impact of Crimean War and conquer Ottoman
  Empire
• Obtain Constantinople as outlet to the
  Mediterranean
• Expand Russias influence in Asia
• Expand Russian influence amongst Balkan peoples
• Pan-Slavism and Slavophiles
• Ideologies that portrayed Russia as leader of all
  Slavs
• Goal was to liberate all Slavs, unite them under
  Russian rule
• Sought to unite Slavs under Russian tsar, common
  state
• Saw Russian culture as superior
  anti-westernizers
• Led to Russification in Russia and conflict with
  Germany, Russia
• Alliance with France in 1894 and later with
  England
• Rise of Germany scared Russia who made common
  cause with France
• Similar fears eventually caused Russia and UK to
  bury differences
• Russo-Japanese War 1904 1905
• Russian military expansion came to an end in 1904
• Japan and Russia came into conflict over
  expansion in northern China.
• The Japanese quickly defeated Russia in the
  Russo-Japanese War
• Military defeat unleashed all of the dissenting
  forces in Russia.

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RUSSIAN EXPANSION
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ROAD TO REVOLUTION

• During, after the 1880s, Russia became
  politically, socially unstable
• Ethnic minorities began to agitate for national
  recognition after the 1860s.
• Recurrent famines produced peasant unrest.
• Intellectual protest began
• Business and professional people sought further
  liberal reforms
• Radical intelligentsia demanded revolution
• Intellectual radicalism shaded off into terrorism
  and anarchism as a way to restructure society
• Initially, Russian radicals sought to spread
  their message among the peasants
• But they found the masses unreceptive
• Anarchists fell back on political assassination
  to unseat the government
• Alexander II was assassinated in 1881 his
  successors imposed repressive policies to dampen
  unrest.
• Russian Marxism
• In the 1890s, intellectuals picked up Marxism
  from the West as a means of organizing the
  revolution.
• Lenin introduced innovations in Marxism to
  accommodate the reality of Russian society
• Lenin's organization called for small disciplined
  cells of Marxists to organize the revolution.
• Lenin's approach was accepted by the Bolshevik
  faction of the Russian Marxists.
• Radicalism spread rapidly among urban workers,
  who formed unions and engaged in strikes.
• The Russian Government
• Faced with mass protests in cities and
  countryside state clamped down on reform

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RUSSIAN RADICALISM
Lenin, Engels, Marx From Marxism to Bolshevism
Bakunin Anarchism
Russian Social Revolutionaries (Agrarian
Socialists)
From Narodniki to Nihilists
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• The Capitalist System In Russia According To The
  Marxists
• The Tsar, Nobles
• The Church
• The Military and Police
• The Rich Bourgeoisie
• The Peasants, Workers

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RUSSIAN REVOLUTION OF 1905

• The Russian Revolution of 1905
• Began when soldiers mistakenly opened fire on
  pro-tsarist demonstration
• Soldiers, sailors mutinied at end of
  Russo-Japanese War
• Urban workers produced widespread strikes
• Peasants revolts erupted across Russia.
• After repression failed, tsar's government
  offered reforms.
• Duma (national parliament) created multi-party
  system legalized
• Constitution rewritten
• Minister Stolypin Enacts Reforms
• Offered lighter burdens to the peasantry
• Offered peasants a place in village councils
• Peasant rebellions did die out
• Some peasants began to accumulate substantial
  land
• The reforms were rapidly undone.
• Tsar Nicholas II withdrew concessions to workers
• New rounds of strikes followed
• Duma rapidly became a political nonentity.

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EASTERN EUROPE

• 1750
• Split between Ottomans, Austria, Poland
• Had largely missed Reformation, Renaissance,
  changes
• To 1914
• Poland has disappeared
• Three partitions
• Russia, Austria and Prussia each received lands
• Shared a common goal never to allow a Polish
  state to arise again
• Ottomans expelled from Europe
• After series of wars, revolts ended in two large
  Balkans wars in 1912
• Except for small part of Thrace, Turks expelled
  from Europe
• Many Muslims (converted Slavs, Greeks) remained
  as did large Turkish populations
• Many new nations emerged in the Balkans
• Eastern Europe was a patchwork quilt of
  nationalities
• Rumania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Serbia
  included large minorities
• Replicated Russian patterns of political
  autocracy
• Many did establish parliaments put politics was
  violent, brutal
• Most eastern European nations abolished serfdom
  in 1848
• Industrialization was less thorough and many
  traditional Ottoman patterns remained

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ETHNIC MAPS OF EASTERN EUROPE
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MAPPING THE JAPANESE EMPIRE, 1914
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JAPAN CHANGE WITHOUT REVOLUTION

• The Late Tokugawa Shogunate
• Utilitzed a central bureaucracy
• Combined with alliances to feudal magnates
• Government was chronically short of funds
• Due to limited income from taxes
• Also due to high payments made to feudal lords
  for their loyalty
• Shortages of income led to reform movements
• This weakened shogunate and made it vulnerable to
  external threats
• Government and Society
• The political alliance between the bureaucracy
  and the samurai worked well
• Growth of neo-Confucianism made Japanese life
  more secular
• Also precluded a religious opposition to change
• Literacy rates in Japan were much higher than in
  the West
• The national school emphasized essentially
  Japanese culture
• Dutch Studies school represented attempts to
  learn Western science, technology
• The Japanese economy expanded on the basis of
  commercial growth
• Manufacturing began to extend into countryside
  producing some rural protests

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CHALLENGE TO ISOLATION

• 1853
• American commodore Matthew Perry arrived
• Demanded that Japan be opened to trade
• 1856
• Japan was forced to receive Western consuls
• Forced to open ports to foreign trade.
• Shogun faced immediate opposition
• Daimyos insisted on maintaining isolation
• Shogun and the daimyos both made appeals to the
  emperor
• Emperor began to emerge as a more powerful
  figure.
• Meiji Restoration
• Some among the samurai saw an opportunity to
  unseat the shogun
• In 1860s samurai armed with Western weapons
  defeated shogun's army
• In 1868, certain samurai restored imperial rule
  under Meiji Emperor

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IMAGINING OPENING JAPAN
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MEIJI STATE

• The Meiji government abolished feudalism
• Replaced the daimyo states with regional
  prefectures
• Government sent samurai abroad to study
  political, economic organization
• Foreign observations were used to restructure the
  state
• Government abolished payments to samurai
• Paid samurai with government bonds but some
  samurai fell into poverty
• Conscription provided a new army
• Others found avenues of employment in the
  government and business.
• 1884
• Government created a new nobility to staff a
  House of Peers
• Civil-service examinations were utilized to open
  the bureaucracy to men of talent.
• 1889 constitution
• Recognized the supremacy of the emperor
• But gave limited powers to an elected lower house
  of representatives within the Diet.
• The new constitution was based on German models.
• Voting rights were determined by property
  qualifications
• Five percent of the population to cast ballots
• The form of government gave great authority to
  wealthy businessmen and nobles
• Political parties developed

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JAPANS INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

• The influence of the army and navy
• Became very influential in society
• Many reforms were enacted to modernize the armed
  forces
• Modernization necessary for military reasons
• Foundations for industrialization
• An internal infrastructure was created
• Guilds and internal tariffs were abolished
• Clear title to land was granted to individuals
• Government Involvement
• Lack of capital dictated direct government
  involvement in the stages of industrialization.
• Japan established the Ministry of Industry in
  1870 to oversee economic development
• The government built model factories to provide
  experience with new technology
• Education was extended as a means of developing a
  work force
• Private enterprise soon joined government
  initiatives, particularly in textiles
• Industrial combines or zaibatsus served to
  accumulate capital for major investment.
• Results
• Japan's careful management of industrialization
  limited foreign involvement.
• Japan continued to depend on the importation of
  equipment and raw materials from the West.
• Rapid growth depended on existence of cheap
  supply of labor often drawn from poorly paid
  women.

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EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIALIZATION

• Social change led to rapid population growth
• Strained Japanese resources
• But provided a ready supply of cheap labor.
• As industrialization progressed, population
  growth dropped off.
• Patriarchal households remained the norm
• Divorce rates indicated increasing instability
  within family life.
• The education system stressed science and loyalty
  to the emperor
• Westernization?
• Western culture arrived along with models of
  state and industrialization.
• Shintoism as an expression of indigenous culture
  gained new popularity.
• Foreign Policy
• Japan entered the race for colonial domination.
• The need to employ the new army
• Search for raw materials
• Efforts to prevent Western encroachment
• All contributed to Japanese imperialism after
  1890
• Japan annexed the Ryuku Islands
• Japan won easy victories over China in 1895 and
  over Russia in 1904.
• The victories yielded Japan some territories in
  northern China

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STATISTICS OF CHANGE
COAL PRODUCTION IN JAPAN IN VARIOUS YEARS FROM 1875 TO 1913 COAL PRODUCTION IN JAPAN IN VARIOUS YEARS FROM 1875 TO 1913
Year Coal Production(metric tons)
1875 600,000
1885 1,200,000
1895 5,000,000
1905 13,000,000
1913 21,300,000
RAILROAD MILEAGE IN JAPAN IN VARIOUS YEARS FROM 1873 TO 1913 RAILROAD MILEAGE IN JAPAN IN VARIOUS YEARS FROM 1873 TO 1913
Year Track(miles)
1872 18
1883 240
1887 640
1894 2100
1904 4700
1914 7100
RAW SILK PRODUCTION AND EXPORT FROM JAPAN 1868 TO 1913 RAW SILK PRODUCTION AND EXPORT FROM JAPAN 1868 TO 1913 RAW SILK PRODUCTION AND EXPORT FROM JAPAN 1868 TO 1913
Period Productionannual average(tons) Exportsannual average(tons)
1868-1872 1026 646
1883 1687 1347
1889-1893 4098 2444
1899-1903 7103 4098
1909-1913 12460 9462
THE SIZE OF THE JAPANESE MERCHANT FLEET IN VARIOUS YEARS FROM 1873 TO 1913 THE SIZE OF THE JAPANESE MERCHANT FLEET IN VARIOUS YEARS FROM 1873 TO 1913
Year Number of Steamships
1873 26
1894 169
1904 797
1913 1514
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IMAGES OF JAPANESE INDUSTRIALIZATION,
WESTERNIZATION
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STRAINS OF MODERNIZATION

• Industrialization and successful imperialism had
  costs
• Industrialization upended older traditions,
  social classes
• Change is not accepted easily
• Imperialism demanded a strong industrial base
• War industries tie up money in producing goods
  which have no benefit
• Money spent on war could be invested elsewhere
• Japan made the decision to be a great power and
  that meant arming
• Unions, strikes arose in Japan and labor politics
  became part of industry
• Carefully contrived political balance became
  unwieldy
• Ministries were forced to call more frequent
  elections
• Few working majorities in the Diet
• Factions emerged in the Diet and old timers
  dominated proceedings
• Rise of Nationalism
• Conservatives appalled at trend to imitate the
  West.
• Intellectuals bemoaned loss of an authentic
  Japanese identity
• Both saw a Japan that was neither traditional nor
  Western.
• Leaders urged loyalty to the emperor and the
  nation.
• Nationalism became a strong force in Japanese
  politics.

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RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR
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COMPARING CHINA AND JAPAN

• Comparisons in 1800
• Similarities in 1800
• Both had a Confucian culture, adopted a policy of
  relative isolation from contacts
• Both lagged behind west scientifically,
  industrially forcibly opened by the West about
  the same time
• Differences
• China surpassed Japan in development
• Chinese Confucian leadership was stronger, more
  developed government was secular, bureaucratic
• Chinese centralized government had no feudal
  lords to impeded or distract it
• China had a rich tradition of innovation and
  scientific discoveries
• Differences Determined Outcome of Contact
• So why did Japan succeed?
• China lacked flexibility tried to squash or
  control innovation
• Japan knew benefits of innovation had a strong
  autonomous mercantile tradition
• Japans feudalism produced a dedicated
  militaristic elite, limited centralization
• China hampered by rapid population growth which
  consumed energy, resources
• Japan was island nation open to maritime
  contacts, influences learned from Chinese
  mistakes
• Japanese government suffered no breakdown of
  authority even during Meiji Restoration
• Or Did China fail?
• Chinese government less efficient, less popular
  as dynasty was in decline intellectual life
  stifled

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GLOBAL CONNECTIONS

• Russia's already established role in the world
  expanded in the 19th century, as its cultural,
  diplomatic, and military power came to be felt in
  Europe, the Ottoman Empire, and Asia.
• Japan's role was newer, as it emerged from
  isolation to develop an increasingly powerful
  economy and to expand its influence in the
  western Pacific. Some nations in the West feared
  the yellow peril represented by Japan's emergence
  as an international power.
• The addition of Russia, Japan, and the United
  States to the world diplomatic picture increased
  competition. Colonial acquisitions by the new
  powers heightened the competitive atmosphere,
  particularly in the Far East.

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IDENTIFICATIONS

• TERAKOYA
• DUTCH STUDIES
• ZAIBATSU
• DIET
• SINO-JAPANESE WAR
• YELLOW PERIL

• HOLY ALLIANCE
• DECEMBRIST UPRISINGS
• CRIMEAN WAR
• EMANCIPATION OF THE SERFS
• ZEMSTVOES
• TRANS-SIBERIAN RAILROAD
• INTELLIGENTSIA
• ANARCHISTS
• BOLSHEVIKS
• RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR
• DUMA
• STOLYPIN REFORMS
• KULAKS

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WHO AM I?

• NICHOLAS I
• ALEXANDER II
• SERGEI WITTE
• V. I. LENIN
• MATTHEW PERRY
• MEIJI EMPEROR