Bab 9

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Bab 9

• Metoda Ilmiah

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Metoda IlmiahUnsur Metoda Ilmiah

• Metoda Ilmiah
• Dalam bentuk paling dasar, metoda ilmiah terdiri
  atas dua komponen
• Ada temuan ilmiah (context of discovery)
• Ada justifikasi (context of justification)
• Temuan ilmiah
• Supaya dilengkapi dengan argumentasi/penelaran
  ilmiah
• Ada kalanya diawali dengan pertanyaan ilmiah
  dalam bentuk rumusan masalah
• Justifikasi ilmiah
• Supaya dilengkapi dengan rancangan serta
  peralatan yang memadai

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Metoda IlmiahUnsur Metoda Ilmiah

• Format Metoda Ilmiah
• Lembaga memiliki gaya sendiri untuk format metoda
  ilmiah
• Dalam banyak hal, lembaga mengeluarkan pedoman
  tentang format metoda ilmiah yang mereka gunakan
• Ada komponen penting yang pada umumnya sama untuk
  setiap format metoda ilmiah
• Format Penulisan
• Ada sejumlah format untuk menulis/melapor temuan
  ilmiah
• Biasanya ditentukan oleh lembaga yang menerima
  laporan temuan ilmiah (perguruan tinggi, jurnal
  ilmiah)

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• THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
• The scientific method is usually described
  in five steps. However, some identify only three
  or four steps, while others say there are six or
  seven steps. The number of steps is not
  important. What is important is the process that
  the researcher follows (a hypothetico-deductive
  paradigm). The scientific method should be
  regarded as a series of steps but, rather, as a
  set of overlapping and interdependent procedures
  for systematically studying phenomena and
  revealing knowledge. In other words, it is a way
  of thinking when doing research. In fact, the
  philosopher John Dewey referred to the scientific
  method as a habit in mind. The steps of the
  scientific method described here need not be
  followed in order, although researchers usually
  write up their reports as if they were. They do
  this more to meet the conventions of researched
  writing established over the years and to show
  that each of the steps was attended to in their
  research than to show that they began with the
  first step of the process. To illustrate the
  steps in the scientific method of research, we
  will refer to the previous example of the student
  whose car would not start.
• Step 1 The first step in the scientific
  method is usually characterized as the sensing or
  realizing that some problem exists through
  familiarity with a topic. For example, something
  might happen that cannot be easily explained, or
  the way to accomplish some goal may not be

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• evident.The realization that the car did not
  start even though it had worked previously served
  to establish the existence of the problem for the
  student.
• Step 2 The problem is clarified that is,
  the nature, and specifics of the problem are
  identified. In our example, the student
  recognized the problem to be, simply, How do I
  get the car started? The problem is a question
  that determines, to a large extent, the direction
  the investigation will take. For example, had the
  student recognized his problem as How will I get
  to school today? or Whom shall I ask to fix the
  car? his subsequent behavior would have been
  very different.
• Step 3 the third step is devising the plan
  for the research. To do this, a statement
  describing a possible solution to the problem is
  made, and procedures are identified to test the
  plausibility of this tentative solution. Going
  back to our example, the student first thought
  that the problem might be with the battery, and
  so he developed a strategy to test that
  possibility. Finding that solution to be
  implausible or unsupported by his observations,
  he reasoned that the problem might be due to damp
  terminals on the starter motor, and he proceeded
  to test this. He continued to make plausible
  guesses about the cause of his inability to get
  the car started until he found one that was
  supported by what he saw in his investigati-

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• gations. Each guess he made led to a strategy. A
  plan for investigating the plausibility of the
  solution.
• Step 4 This step is decision making. Based
  upon the data collected in the previous step, the
  researcher evaluated the adequacy of the proposed
  solution. If the data support the solution, it is
  accepted as reasonable. The student in our
  example rejected the reasonableness of two
  possible solutions before he found one that was
  adequately supported by his observation.
• Step 5 The final step involves
  interpretation and generalization of the findings
  into the larger body of knowledge about the
  phenomenon. This might involve consideration of
  previous knowledge in terms of the new knowledge
  or further experimentation. Both consideration of
  what is already known and further experimentation
  in light of the new knowledge might be
  appropriate. We saw this in our example when the
  student replaced the worn-out fuse. In a sense,
  he was investigating whether or not the car would
  start with a new fuse in place of the old one.
  Furthermore, as he was driving to school, the
  student considered his knowledge about the fuse
  in his car in terms of what he knew about blown
  fuses in general and, therefore, determined to
  search for a short circuit.

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• HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE METHOD
• Procedure for the construction of a
  scientific theory that will account for results
  obtained through direct observation and
  experimentation and that will, through inference,
  predict further effects that can then be verified
  or disproved by empirical evidence derived from
  other experiments.
• Developed by Sir Isaac Newton during the
  late 17th century (but named at a later date by
  philosophers of science), the hypothetico-deductiv
  e method assumes that properly formed theories
  arise as generalizations from observable data
  that they are intended to explain. These
  hypotheses, however, cannot be conclusively
  established until the consequences that logically
  follow from them are verified through additional
  observations and experiments. In conformity with
  Descartes rationalism, the hypothetico-deductive
  method treats theory as deductive system in which
  particular empirical phenomena are explained by
  relating them back to general principles and
  definitions. The method, however, abandons the
  Cartesian claim that those principles and
  definitions are self-evident and valid it
  assumes that their validity is determined only by
  the exact light their consequences throw on
  previously unexplained phenomena or on actual
  scientific problems.

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Metoda IlmiahPokok Pikiran

• Bertrand Russell
• Pengetahuan teoretik untuk memahami dunia.
  Pengetahuan praktis untuk mengubah dunia
• Ilmuwan yang membangun ilmu memiliki dua
  kebaikan (1) kesabaran luar biasa di dalam
  observasi, dan (2) keberanian besar di dalam
  merumuskan hipotesis
• Sebagai aturan, perumusan hipotesis adalah bagian
  tersulit di dalam karya ilmu, serta merupakan
  bagian yang, tidak boleh tidak, harus ada
  kemampuan tinggi
• John Locke
• Pengetahuan di dunia dimulai dari persepsi
  indriah (sense perception) dan refleksi
• Mereka memberikan kepada pikiran bahan
  pengetahuan untuk membangun ide
• Pemahaman akan pemikiran dan proses mengetahui,
  perlu memahami bahasa sebagai media untuk
  berpikir dan berkomunikasi
• Diperlukan kata umum sebagai konsep abstrak

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• THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE
• (dari John Locke)
• Locke was thoroughly suspicious of the view
  that a thinker could work out by reason alone the
  truth about the universe. Much as he admired
  Descartes, he feared that this speculative spirit
  in him, and he despised it in the Scholastic
  philosophers. In this sense he rejected
  metaphysics. Knowledge of the world could only be
  gained by experience and reflection on
  experience, and this knowledge was being gained
  by Boyle, Sydenham, Christiaan Huygens, and
  Newton. They were the true philosophers who were
  advancing knowledge. Locke set himself the
  humbler task, as he conceived it, of
  understanding how this knowledge was gained. What
  was the original, certainty, and extent of human
  knowledge, together with the grounds and degrees
  of belief, opinion, and assent?
• Empiricism. As for the original, the
  answer was plain. Knowledge of the world began in
  sense perception, and self-knowledge in
  introspection, or reflection in Lockes
  language. It did not begin in innate knowledge of
  maxims or general principles, and it did not
  proceed by syllogistic reasoning from such
  principles. In the 17th century there had been
  much vague talk about innate knowledge, and in
  Book I of his Essay Concerning Human
  Understanding Locke examines this talk and

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• shows its worthlessness. In Book II of his Essay
  he begins by claiming that the sources of all
  knowledge are sense experience and reflection
  these are not themselves, however, instances of
  knowledge in the strict sense, but they provide
  the mind with the material of knowledge. Locke
  calls the material so provided ideas. Ideas are
  objects before the mind, not in the sense that
  they are physical objects, but that they
  represent them. Locke distinguishes ideas that
  represent actual qualities of objects (such as
  size, shape, or weight) from ideas that represent
  perceive qualities, which do not exist in objects
  except as they affect observers (such as colour,
  taste, or smell). Locke designates the former
  primary qualities and the latter secondary
  qualities.
• Locke proceeds to group and classify the
  ideas, with a view to showing that the origin of
  all of them lies in sensation and reflection.
  Although ideas are immediately before the mind,
  not all of them are simple. Many of them are
  compounded, and their simple parts can be
  revealed on analysis. It is these simple ideas
  alone that are given in sensation and reflection.
  Out of them the mind forms complex ideas, though
  Locke is ambiguous on this point. For while he
  uses the language of forming or compounding
  and speaks of the workmanship of the mind, the
  compounding is frequently in accordance with what
  is perceived to go together and is not
  arbitrary.
• Lockes reflection upon cause and effect,
  had they been

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• elaborated, would undoubtedly have led him into
  acute difficulties. He does admit one failure. As
  an empiricist he can give no account of the idea
  of substance it is, he thinks, essential and not
  to be denied, and yet it is not a simple idea
  given in sensation or reflection nor is it
  derived from simple ideas so given. In fact he
  can say little of it it is a-something-I-know-no
  t-what. Thus, the case for empiricism cannot be
  said to be entirely established by Book II, but
  Locke thinks it strong enough for him to persist
  the view that knowledge of the physical world is
  wholly derived from sense perception.
• Language. According to Locke, Book III, on
  language, cost him more pains than any other
  book of his Essays yet it is the book that has
  been most neglected. To understand thinking and
  knowing one must understand language as the means
  of thought and communication. Words are
  conventional signs, but signs, according to
  Locke, not immediately of things but of ideas of
  thing, so that he carries his theory of ideas
  into his account of knowledge. Frequently, the
  idea signified by the word is not clear, and
  sometimes words are used even when there are no
  ideas corresponding to them. This is particularly
  so in the case of general words, without which
  language would be so impoverished as to lose most
  of its worth. The use of general words, in
  Lockes mind, is bound up with the theory of
  universals. Does the general word stand for a
  particular idea that is used in representative
  capacity? Or is the universal nothing more than a
  creation of the mind,

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• through abstraction, to which is attached a name?
  In considering natural substances Locke is
  inclined strongly toward a conceptualism
  according to which the use of general words is
  possible only because they signify nominal
  essences. In this view what is meant is not the
  real essence but an abstract concept, something
  brought about through the workmanship of the
  understanding. Locke also discusses the names of
  simple ideas and of relations, and it is
  interesting to find the crude beginnings of a
  discussion of what were later to be called
  logical or operative words. Book III contains
  also a valuable account of definition, which
  denies the theory that all definition must be per
  genus et differentiam (by comparison and
  contrast). The final chapters deal with the
  inevitable imperfections of language and with
  avoidable abuses.

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Metoda IlmiahPokok Pikiran

• Immanuel Kant
• Ada tiga langkah di dalam penemuan pengetahuan
• Pertama
• sensation tak terstruktur, menurut ruang dan
  waktu
• Kedua
• perception melalui hubungan konsep kosalitas,
  kontingensi,
• Ketiga
• penilaian disusun ke dalam sistem
• David Hume
• Pikiran memperoleh ide dari kesan. Kesan hanya
  berarti kalau dapat membawa obyek suber kesan ke
  dalam pikiran
• Dua arti pada ide
• Analitik -gt hubungan ide
• Empirk -gt fakta
• Kosalitas memastikan adanya hubungan perlu di
  antara fakta

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• HUMAN KNOWLEDGE
• (dari David Hume)
• An Enquiry Concerning Human Knowledge is an
  attempt to define the principles of human
  knowledge. It poses in logical form significant
  questions about nature of reasoning in regard to
  matters of fact and experience, and it answers
  them by recourse to the principle of association.
  The basis of this exposition is a twofold
  classification of objects of awareness. In the
  first place, al such objects are either
  impressions, data of sensation or of internal
  consciousness, or ideas, derived from such data
  by compounding, transposing, augmenting, or
  diminishing. That is to say, the mind does not
  create any ideas but derives them from
  impressions. From this Hume develops a theory of
  meaning. A word that does not stand directly for
  an impression has meaning only if it brings
  before the mind an object that can be gathered
  from an impression by one of the mental processes
  mentioned. In the second place, there are two
  approaches to construing meaning, an analytical
  one, which concentrates on the relations of
  ideas, and an empirical one, which focuses on
  matters of fact. Ideas can be held before the
  mind simply as meanings, and their logical
  relations to one another can then be detected by
  rational inspection. The idea of a plane
  triangle, for example, entails the equality of
  its internal angles to two right angles, and the
  idea of motion entails

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• the ideas of space and time, irrespective of
  whether there really are such things as triangles
  and motion. Only on this level of mere meanings,
  Hume asserts, is there room for demonstrative
  knowledge. Matters of fact, on the other hand,
  come before the mind merely as they are,
  revealing no logical relations their properties
  and connections must be accepted as they are
  given. That primroses are yellow, that lead is
  heavy, and that fire burns things are facts, each
  shut up in itself, logically barren. Each, so far
  as reason is concerned, could be different the
  contradictory of every matter of fact is
  conceivable. Therefore, any demonstra-tive
  science of fact is impossible.
• From this basis Hume develops his doctrine
  about causality. The idea of causality is alleged
  to assert a necessary connection among matters of
  fact. From what impression, then, is it derived?
  Hume states that no causal relation among the
  data of the senses can be observed, for, when a
  person regards any events as causally connected,
  all that he does and can observe is that they
  frequently and uniformly go together. In this
  sort of togetherness it is a fact that the
  impression or idea of the one event brings with
  it the idea of the other. A habitual association
  is set up in the mind and, as in other forms of
  habit, so in this one, the working of the
  association is felt as compulsion. This feeling,
  Hume concludes, is the only discoverable
  impressional source of the idea of causality.
• Hume then considers the process of causal
  inference,

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• And in so doing the introduces the concept of
  belief. When a person sees a glass fall, he not
  only thinks of its breaking but expects and
  believes that it will break or, starting from an
  effect, when he sees the ground to be generally
  wet, he not only thinks of rain but believes that
  there has been rain. Thus belief is a significant
  component in the process of causal inference.
  Hume then proceeds to investigate the nature of
  belief, claiming that he was the first to do so.
  He uses this term in the narrow sense of belief
  regarding matters of fact. He defines belief as a
  sort of liveliness or vividness that accompanies
  the perception of an idea. A belief is more than
  an idea it is a vivid and lively idea. This
  vividness is originally possessed by some of the
  objects of awareness, by impressions and simple
  memory images of them. By association it comes to
  belong to certain ideas as well. In the process
  of causal inference, then, an observer passes
  from an impression to an idea regularly
  associated with it. In the process the aspect of
  liveliness proper to the impression infects the
  idea, Hume asserts. And it is this aspect of
  liveliness that Hume defines as the essence of
  belief.
• Hume does not claim to prove that the
  propositions, (1) that events themselves are
  causally related, and (2) that they will be
  related in the future in the same ways they were
  in the past, are false. He firmly believed both
  of these propositions are insisted that everybody
  else believed them, will continue to believe
  them, and must continue to believe them in order
  to survive. They are na-

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• tural beliefs, inextinguishable propensities of
  human nature, madness apart. What Hume claims to
  prove is that natural beliefs are not obtained
  and cannot be demonstrated either by empirical
  observation or by reason, whether intuitive or
  inferential. Reflection shows that there is no
  evidence for them and shoes also both that we are
  bound to believe them and that it is sensible or
  sane to do so. This is Humes skepticism it is
  an affirmation of that tension, a denial not of
  belief but of certainty.
• As a philosopher. Hume conceived of
  philosophy as the inductive science of human
  nature, and he concluded that man is more a
  creature of sensitive and practical sentiment
  than of reason. Of the confident he is seen as
  one of the few British classical philosophers.
  For some Germans his importance lies in the fact
  that Immanuel Kant conceived his critical
  philosophy in direct reaction to Hume. Hume was
  one of the influences that led Auguste Comte, the
  19th-century French mathematician and
  sociologist, to positivism. In Britain, his
  positive influence is seen in Jeremy Bentham, the
  early 19th-century jurist philosopher, who was
  moved to utilitarianism (the moral theory that
  fight conduct should be determined by the
  usefulness of its consequences).

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Metoda IlmiahPokok Pikiran

• Leibniz
• Di dalam alam semesta, ditemukan wujud
  sederhana dan sempurna.
• Ada beberapa prinsip
• Prinsip ekstrim (minimum dan maksimum)
• Prinsip kekekalan
• Prinsip kesinambungan
• Hubungan terkuat ditemukan melalui deduksi dan
  empiri
• John Stuart Mill
• Penalaran berasal dari pengalaman
• Pernyataan ilmiah berupa
• Eksistensi fakta
• Hubungan fakta (koeksitensi, urutan, kemiripan,
  kosalitias)

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• A SYSTEM OF LOGIC
• (dari John Stuart Mill)
• The distinctive features of Mills A System
  of Logic (1843) was the idea that the rules of
  reasoning are obtained from experience, as
  opposed to the traditional view that they a part
  of the minds construction, or of the universe. A
  statement, he said, asserts either the existence
  of a fact or the relation between facts, which
  may be those of coexistence, sequence,
  resemblance, or causality. Its truth is tested by
  its correspondence with the reality we perceive
  by our senses or by reasoning inductively from
  the perception, that is, from the particular to
  the general. In stating that logic is the method
  of testing the factual validity of statements,
  Mill was the forerunner of the scientific method.

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Metoda IlmiahPokok Pikiran

• Rene Descartes
• Ada empat pikiran meliputi
• Meragukan hal yang belum diketahui dengan pasti
• Memecah masalh ke dalam bagian-bagian
• Mulai memecahkan bagian yang mudah dan beranjak
  ke yang susah
• Caranya harus cermat dan lengkap
• Aristoteles
• Metoda induksi
• Metoda deduksi
• Roger Bacon/Grosseteste/Galileo
• Metoda resolusi
• Metoda komposisi
• Newton
• Metoda analisis
• Metoda sintesis

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Metoda IlmiahPokok Pikiran

• Model Logico-hipothetico verification
• Rumuskan hipotesis secara logis dan didukung oleh
  ilmu
• Menguji hipotesis secara empiris (sampai ke kasus
  ekstrim atau kasus destruktif)
• Model Herschel
• Memecah fenomena kompleks ke aspek yang relevan
  untuk metoda
• Ada metoda hipotesis
• Ada metoda skema induktif
• Model Whewell
• Fakta dipecah menjadi fakta elementer
• Ide diperjelas ke dalam konsep
• Perpaduan fakta dan konsep menghasilkan hukum dan
  teori

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Metoda IlmiahPokok Pikiran

• Model Aristoteles
• Istilah yang digunakan
• Aristotels
• A Metoda Induksi
• B Metoda deduksi
• Roger Bacon/Grosseteste/Galileo
• A metoda resolusi
• B metoda komposisi
• Newton
• A metoda analisis
• B metoda sintesis

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Metoda IlmiahPokok Pikiran
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Metoda IlmiahFormat

• Format Metoda Ilmiah
• Format paling mendasar
• Temuan (context of discovery)
• Pembenaran (context of justification)
• Format dikembangkan
• Pertanyaan ilmiah (rumusan masalah)
• Jawaban ilmiah (rumusan hipotesis)
• Rancangan pengujian
• Pengujian (pembenaran)
• Format rinci
• Dikembangkan di masing-masing lembaga
• Beberapa di antaranya ditampilkan di sini

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Metoda IlmiahFormat
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Metoda IlmiahFormat
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Metoda IlmiahFormat
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Metoda IlmiahFormat
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Metoda IlmiahFormat
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Metoda IlmiahMasalah

• Masalah
• 1. Hakikat
• Merupakan pertanyaan ilmiah
• Biasanya disajikan dalam kalimat tanya
• Memerlukan jawaban ilmiah
• Menentukan arah dan cakupan penelitian
• 2. Klasifikasi
• Ada banyak cara untuk mengklasifikasikan masalah
• Di sini direkomendasikan klasifikasi Dillon
• Orde 1 tentang substansi dan ciri
• Orde 2 tentang perbandingan
• Orde 3 tentang ketergantungan

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Metoda IlmiahMasalah

• Klasifikasi Dillon
• Zero Order None
• O. Rhetorical No knowledge
  or no answer
• First Order Properties Individual
  attributes of P or
• of Q
• 1. Existence/affirmation Whether P is
• negation
• 2. Instance/identification Whether this is
  a/the P
• 3. Substance/Definition What is P
• a. Nature What
  makes P be P
• b. Label
  Whether P names P
• c. Meaning What P
  or P means
• 4. Character/Description What P has
• 5. Function/Application What P does
• a. Modes How P
  acts
• b. Uses What
  P can do

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Metoda IlmiahMasalah

• Second Order Comparative
  attributes of
• Comparison P and Q
• 7. Concomitance Whether P
  goes with Q
• a. Conjunction
  Whether P and Q are
• 
  associates
• b. Disjunction
  Whether P and Q are
• 
  alternatives
• 8. Equivalence Whether P
  is like Q, and
• 
  wherein
• 9. Difference Whether P
  and Q differ
• a. Disproportion
  Whether P is more/less
• 
  than Q
• b. Subordination
  Whether P is part/whole
• 
  of Q

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Metoda IlmiahMasalah

• Third Order Contigent
  attributes of P
• Contigencies and Q
• 10. Relation
  Whether P relates to Q
• 11. Correlation
  Whether P and Q covary
• 12. Conditionality Whether
  or how if P then
  Q or if Q then P
• a. Consequence
  Whether if P then Q,
• 
  or what X if P
• b. An tecedence
  Whether if Q then P,
• 
  or what X then P
• 13. Biconditionality Whether
  or how if P then
• (causality) Q
  and if Q then P
• Extra Order Other
  attributes of ways
• Other of
  knowing P
• 14. Deliberation Whether
  to do and think P
• 15 Unspecified to know
  P in other ways
• 16. Unclear No
  known

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Metoda IlmiahMasalah

• 3. Model Struktural
• Orde dua Perbandingan
• Orde tiga Ketergantungan

X1
Yx1
?
X2
Yx2
X
Y
X
Y
X
Y
Z
X1
Y
X2
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Metoda IlmiahMasalah

• Contoh model struktural
• SES Social Economic Status
• Intel Intelligence
• nAch need for achievement
• Ach achievement

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Metoda IlmiahMasalah

• Klasifikasi lainnya dari
• Aristoteles (Posterior Analytics)
• Lundsted (1968)
• Bunge (1967)
• Steiner (1978)
• Shulman (1981)
• Smith (1981)
• Johnston and Pennypacker (1980)
• Laudan (1977)
• Fischer (1970)
• Aritoteles (Topics)
• Rescher (1982)
• Tidak dirinci di sini

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Metoda IlmiahMasalah

• Albert Einstein dan L. Infeld
• The formulation of a problem is far more often
  essential than its solution, which may be merely
  a matter of mathematical or experimental skill.
• To raise new questions, new possibilities, to
  regard old problems from a new angle requires
  creative imagination and mark real advance in
  science.

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Metoda IlmiahMasalah

• 4. Isi Masalah
• Ciri, perbandingan, ketergantungan pada
  klasifikasi Dillon pada masalah adalah variabel
• Variabel berisikan aribut dari subyek (makhluk,
  benda, peristiwa)
• Atribut Subyek
• Hasil ujian mahasiswa
• Upah bulanan pegawai
• Panjang belalai gajah
• Kecepatan lari kijang
• Kekuatan besi beton
• Intensitas cahaya
• Temperatur kebakaran
• Kecepatan olah data

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Metoda IlmiahMasalah

• 5. Pengertian Variabel
• Arti variabel perlu jelas sehingga perlu
  dijelaskan, mencakup
• Arti (untuk dipahami)
• Ciri (untuk argumentasi ilmiah)
• Indikator (untuk pembuatan alat ukur)

Abstrak (konstruk)
tesis
spesifik
general
Konkrit (fakta)
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Metoda IlmiahMasalah

• Fakta kenyataan yang dapat langsung diukur
• seperti umur, tempat lahir, jumlah
• anggota keluarga
• Konsep pengertian dari sesuatu yang nyata
• arti pegawai, arti mahasiswa
• Konstruk besaran yang dikonstruksi oleh para
• ilmuwan (abstrak) seperti
  sikap,
• gelisah, minat, frustrasi
• Spesifik hanya berlaku pada suatu wilayah
• yang sangat terbatas, seperti
• di perusahaan XYZ
• General berlaku umum seperti di semua
• perusahaan, di seluruh dunia, di
• seluruh jagat raya

41
Metoda IlmiahMasalah

• Pengertian konsep dan konstruk dapat saja
  berbeda-beda karena
• Digunakan oleh bidang ilmu berbeda, seperti
• oleh psikologi
• oleh sosiologi
• oleh antropologi
• Di bidang ilmu sama, ada aliran berbeda
• Pada aliran sama, ada pakar berbeda
• Digunakan di dalam konteks yang berbeda
  memerlukan pengertian yang berbeda
• (lihat format UNJ)

42
Metoda IlmiahMasalah

• 6. Operasionalisasi Variabel
• Variabel dapat diukur, sehingga memerlukan
• Skala ukur
• Alat ukur
• Cara mengukur
• Data hasil ukur
• Pengolahan data
• Validitas
• Data hasil ukur harus secara benar mengukur apa
  yang harus diukur
• Reliabilitas
• Data hasil ukur harus dapat dipercaya yakni
  memberikan data yang sesungguhnya

43
Metoda IlmiahMasalah

• Variabel Manifes dan Variabel Laten
• Variabel Manifes
• Dapat langsung terukur
• Misal tinggi badan, hasil ujian,
• Variabel Laten
• Tidak dapat langsung terukur
• Misal sikap, hasil belajar, (konstruk)
• Pengukuran Variabel Laten
• Melalui padanan variabel manifes yang sesuai
• Misal hasil belajar melalui hasil ujian, sikap
  melalui hasil iuesioner
• Masalah kecocokan (validitas) di antara keduanya

44
Metoda IlmiahMasalah

• 7. Struktur Rumusan Masalah
• Rumusan masalah harus jelas sehingga mungkin
  terjawab
• Rumusan masalah mengaitkan variabel yang secara
  pengertian variabel (konsep, konstruk) memang
  tidak terkait
• Ini berarti bahwa kaitan di antara variabel
  terjadi karena hakikat ilmu dan bukan karena
  kosep
• Perangkat masalah dapat terdiri atas satu atau
  lebih rumusan masalah
• Di dalam satu penelitian, apabila terdapat lebih
  dari satu rumusan masalah, maka mereka harus
  merupakan satu kesatuan yang ketat

45
Metoda IlmiahMasalah

• 8. Contoh Rumusan Masalah
• Apakah hasil belajar siswa lebih tinggi pada cara
  mengajar direktif daripada cara mengajar
  nondirektif? (orde 2)
• Apakah terdapat perbedaan kecepatan olah data di
  antara quicksort dan bubblesort? (orde 2)
• Apakah terdapat perbedaan kekuatan penopangan di
  antara tiang pancang pantekan dan cor-coran?
• Apakah ada hubungan di antara harga barang dengan
  jumlah pembeli di toko? (orde 3)
• Apakah hubungan emosional ayah dan anak lelaki
  berbeda dengan hubungan emosional ibu dan anak
  perempuan? (orde 3 dan 2)

46
Metoda IlmiahMasalah

• 9. Pelengkap Masalah
• Latar belakang
• Memberikan alasan mengapa sampai ke rumusan
  masalah
• Semua varaibel di dalam rumusan masalah tercantum
  di dalam latar belakang, biasanya dimulai dari Y
  dan disusul oleh X
• Jangan sampai ada jawaban pasti terhadap rumusan
  masalah
• Identifikasi masalah
• Menurut Descartes, masalah dipecah ke dalam
  bagian-bagian
• Di sini disajikan bagian-bagian masalah apa saja
  yang dapat ditemukan pada latar belakang masalah
• Pembatasan masalah
• Membatasi mana saja pada identifikasi masalah
  ditetapkan sebagai masalah penelitian

47
Metoda IlmiahHipotesis

• Hipotesis
• 1. Hakikat
• Merupakan pernyataan ilmiah spekulatif yang
  berasal dari hasil pemikiran
• Jika hasil pemikiran ini mengacu kepada premis
  (teori, hukum) maka diperoleh hipotesis deduktif
• Jika hasil pemikiran ini mengacu kepada data yang
  ada maka diperoleh hipotesis induktif
• Biasanya hipotesis merupakan jawaban ilmiah
  terhadap pertanyaan ilmiah (rumusan masalah)
• Hipotesis disajikan dalam kalimat pernyataan
• Rumusan hipotesis harus cocok dengan rumusan
  masalah yang dijawabnya

48
Metoda IlmiahHipotesis

• 2. Rumusan Hipotesis dan Rumusan Masalah
• Banyaknya hipotesis adalah sama dengan banyaknya
  rumusan masalah (satu rumusan masalah satu
  hipotesis)
• Isi hipotesis harus benar merupakan jawaban yang
  tepat dari isi rumusan masalah (cocok)
• 3. Hipotesis Statistika
• Apabila data berbentuk acak atau probabilitas
  maka biasanya pengujian hipotesis dilakukan
  melalui statistika
• Dalam hal ini, di samping hipotesis penelitian,
  disusun juga hipotesis statistika
• Di dalam hipotesis statistika, kita perlu
  menentukan parameter statistika mana yang kita
  gunakan

49
Metoda IlmiahHipotesis

• 4. Contoh Hipotesis
• Hasil belajar siswa lebih tinggi pada cara
  mengajar direktif daripada cara mengajar
  nondirektif.
• Kecepatan olah data lebih tinggi pada quicksort
  daripada bubblesort.
• Tiang pancang pantekan dan cor-coran sama
  kekuatan penopangannya.
• Terdapat hubungan negatif di antara harga barang
  dengan jumlah pembeli di toko.
• Hubungan emosional ibu dan anak perempuan lebih
  besar dari hubungan emosional ayah dan anak
  lelaki.

50
Metoda IlmiahHipotesis

• 5. Pelengkap Hipotesis
• Hipotesis harus didukung oleh pemikiran yang kuat
  (karena juga biaya dan waktu untuk menguji
  hipotesis secara empirik cukup besar)
• Pemikiran yang biasa digunakan untuk sampai ke
  hipotesis adalah logika
• Silogisme kategoris
• Silogisme hipotetik
• Silogisme disjunktif
• Silogisme alternatif
• Inferensi segera
• Konversi
• Obbersi
• Pemikiran harus cukup meyakinkan
• Tidak ada kontradiksi
• Tidak melompat ke konklusi (ada syarat
• perlu dan syarat cukup)
• Tidak bias atau timpang

51
Metoda IlmiahHipotesis

• Contoh silogisme kategorik
• Masalah Apakah gaji besar lebih disukai karyawan
  daripada gaji kecil?
• Premis mayor Menurut teori Maslow, manusia
  memiliki keperluan hidup yang bertingkat (teori)
• Premis minor Gaji besar lebih dapat memenuhi
  keperluan hidup tingkat lebih tinggi daripada
  gaji kecil
• Konklusi Karyawan lebih menyukai gaji besar
  daripada gaji kecil (hipotesis)

52
Metoda IlmiahHipotesis

• Syarat Pemikiran
• Memenuhi syarat logika
• Tidak boleh kontradiksi
• Tidak melompat ke konklusi (penyebab berbeda
  belum tentu akibat berbeda)
• Memenuhi syarat perlu dan syarat cukup
• Tidak boleh timpang atau bias (di dalam
  perbandingan, keunggulan yang satu dibandingkan
  dengan keunggulan yang lainnya, bukan dengan
  kelemahannya)

53
Metoda IlmiahRancangan

• Rancangan Pengujian Hipotesis
• 1. Cakupan
• Rancangan pengujian hipotesis secara empiris
  mencakup sjumlah komponen, meliputi
• Rancangan prosedur penelitian
• Rancangan tempat dan waktu
• Rancangan populasi dan sampel
• Rancangan alat ukur
• Rancangan cara ukur
• Rancangan pengumpulan data
• Rancangan pengolahan data

54
Metoda IlmiahRancangan

• 2. Rancangan Penelitian
• Rancangan prosedur, lokasi, dan pelaksana dapat
  berbentuk kontinum

Penelitian Lapangan
Peneliti sebagai Pengamat
Eksperimen tulen
Observai naturalistik
Peneliti sebagai Peserta
Penelitian Laboratorium
55
Metoda IlmiahRancangan

• Kontinum Prosedur
• Eksperimen tulen memungkinkan manipulasi sehingga
  cocok untuk mencari sebab akibat
• Obsevasi naturalistik memungkinan pengamatan yang
  tidak terpengaruh oleh penelitian
• Di antara mereka terdapat berbagai prosedur
  lainnya (lihat metodologi penelitian)

Eksperimen tulen
Observasi naturalistik
56
Metoda IlmiahRancangan

• Faktor Penting pada Prosedur
• Validitas internal
• Tidak terjadi kekeliruan karena terjadi
  pencemaran di dalam prosedur
• Validitas eksternal
• Hasilnya berlaku juga untuk kelompok lain pada
  keadaan yang sama
• Ceteris paribus
• Jika prosedur memerlukan kelompok berbeda, maka
  semua lainnya (ceteris) adalah sama (paribus)
  kecuali hal yang sedang menjadi fokus penelitian

57
Metoda PenelitianRancangan

• Kontinum Lokasi
• Penelitian Laboratorium
• Keunggulan dapat melakukan kontrol terhadap
  pengganggu (validitas internal tinggi)
• Kelemahan hasinya belum tentu berlaku di
  lapangan (validitas eksternal rendah)
• Penelitian Lapangan
• Keunggulan cenderung berlaku di lapangan
  (validitas eksternal tinggi)
• Kelemahan kurang dapat melakukan kontrol
  terhadap pengganggu (validitas internal rendah)

Penelitian Laboratorium
Penelitian Lapangan
58
Metoda IlmiahRancangan

• Kontinum Peranan Peneliti
• Peneliti sebagai peserta
• Dapat merasakan apa yang terjadi, biasanya, pada
  penelitian budaya
• Peneliti sebagai pengamat
• Dapat melihat secara lebih obyektif apa yang
  terjadi, biasanya, pada penelitian ilmu alam dan
  ilmu sosial

Peneliti sebagai peserta
Peneliti sebagai pengamat
59
Metoda IlmiahRancangan

• 3. Tempat dan Waktu
• Tempat
• Kalau hipotesis dapat berlaku umum, pengujian
  hipotesis secara empiris berlaku di tempat
  terbatas
• Pemilihan tempat menentukan keberlakukan hasil
  pengujian hiopotesis secara empiris
• Waktu
• Kalau hipotesis dapat berlaku untuk waktu yang
  panjang, pengujian hipotesis secara empiris
  berlaku pada kurun waktu tertentu
• Panjang waktu pengujian hipotesis secara empiris
  berkaitan dengan prosedur penelitian berapa lama
  perlakuan baru efektif, berapa lama baru
  perubahan bisa terukur

60
Metoda IlmiahRancangan

• 4. Populasi dan Sampel
• Atribut dan Subyek
• Penelitian biasanya menyangkut sasaran berupa
  atribut dari subyek tertentu (subyek pemilik
  atribut)
• Populasi dan Sampel
• Ada populasi dan sampel atribut (data) dan ada
  juga populasi dan sampel subyek (responden)

61
Metoda IlmiahRancangan

• Populasi
• Biasanya tujuan pengujian hipotesis di dalam
  penelitian mencari populasi data (atribut)
• Karena atribut dimiliki oleh subyek (responden),
  maka dicari juga populasi subyek (responden)
• Sampel
• Sebagian dari populasi yang tetapi tetap dapat
  mencerminkan ciri pada populasi (representatif,
  keterwakilan)
• Ada sejumlah cara untuk menarik sampel yang
  representatif (lihat metodologi penelitian)
• Alasan penggunaan sampel (a) populasi sukar
  dicapai semuanya, (b) subyek rusak dalam prosedur
  penelitian, jangan sampai seluruh populasi rusak

62
Metoda IlmiahRancangan

• 5. Alat Ukur dan Pengukuran
• Pemerolehan
• Gunakan alat ukur yang sudah ada
• Membuat alat ukur sendiri (lihat Konstruksi Alat
  Ukur pada Metoda Ujian dan Metoda Survei)
• Validitas
• Seberapa jauh hasil ukur (juga alat ukurnya)
  cocok dengan apa yang seharusnya diukur disebut
  validitas pengukuran
• Catatan ada banyak istilah validitas, sehingga
  perlu jelas validitas mana yang sedang
  dibicarakan
• Reliabilitas
• Seberapa jauh hasil ukur bisa dipercaya (termasuk
  penilainya)

63
Metoda IlmiahRancangan

• Peningkatan Validitas
• Ada tiga jenis validitas isi, kriteria, konstruk
• Validitas isi dapat diperiksa oleh pakar
• Validitas kriteria (misalnya ujian penerimaan
  pengawai sebagai prediktor dan perilaku pegawai
  kemudian sebagai kriteria) melalui korelasi di
  antara prediktor dan kriteria
• Validitas konstruk (maksud dari atribut yang
  abstrak) melalui kecocokan dan perbedaan dengan
  referensi yang telah diketahui
• Selanjutnya lihat teori pengukuran
• Peningkatan Reliabilitas
• Melalui uji coba ke responden setara
• Menghitung koefisien reliabilitasnya atau
  kecocokan penilai (ada banyak rumus)
• Melakukan analisis butir untuk memperbaiki alat
  ukur (ada banyak rumus)
• Selanjutnya lihat teori pengukuran

64
Metoda IlmiahRancangan

• Cara Ukur
• Cara Ukur
• Ada banyak cara untuk menerapkan alat ukur ke
  responden, berbentuk ujian atau survei
• Ada sejumlah cara ujian
• Ada sejumlah cara survei
• Faktor dalam Pengukuran
• Suasana pengukuran yang baik
• Keterkumpulan hasil ukur (semua, sebagian?)
• Waktu untuk pengumpulan hasil ukur (lama, cepat?)
• Keterlaksanaan tanggapan (dijawab semua butir,
  sebagian?)
• Biaya dan tenaga pelaksanan

65
Metoda IlmiahPengolahan Data

• Pengumpulan dan Pengolahan Data
• Pengumpulan data
• Melalui pelaksanaan pengukuran
• Ada kalanya memerlukan koding
• Penyusunan ke dalam bentuk tabel
• Pemeriksanaan reliabilitas
• Deskripsi responden
• Deskripsi data
• Pengolahan data
• Data nonprobabilistik melalui rumus matematika
  atau riset operasional
• Data probabilistik (acak) sering melalui
  statistika atau riset operasional

66
Metoda IlmiahPengolahan Data

• Pengolahan Data secara Statistika
• Pemeriksaan syarat data (skala, sekor, )
• Pemeriskaan syarat rumus (normalitas,
  homogenitas, linieritas, ortogonalitas)
• Penentuan parameter dan statistik yang paling
  memadai
• Penggunaan statistika parametrik atau
  nonparametrik
• Penentuan risiko untuk inferensi dari sampel ke
  populasi
• Selanjutnya lihat Statistika Terapan
• Pembahasan Hasil Pengujian
• Pembahasan tentang makna dari hasil pengujian
  hipotesis
• Pengukapan kelemahan yang ada.

67
Metoda IlmiahPublikasi

• Jenis Publikasi
• Laporan hasil penelitian
• Seminar ilmiah
• Artikel jurnal ilmiah
• Format Publikasi
• Ditentukan oleh lembaga melalui guide lines
• Perlu mempelajari guide lines itu
• Biasanya adalah bagian awal, abstrak, inti isi,
  daftar pustaka, lampiran
• Bahasa Publikasi
• Bahasa yang benar dan baik
• Bahasa yang konsisten
• Berbentuk esei

68
Metoda IlmiahPublikasi

• Tata Tulis
• Mengikuti tata tulis yang ditentukan oleh
  lembaga
• Tata tulis di Amerika Serikat
• Chicago style
• Professional style bergantung kepada jurnal
  organisasi profesi seperti APA, MLA, LSA, CBE,
  AMA, AIP, IEEE,
• Lembaga di Indonesia banyak menggunakan tata
  tulis dari Amerika Serikat ini
• Selanjutnya lihat Tata Tulis Ilmiah atau Pedoman
  Penulisan Ilmiah

69
Metoda IlmiahEtika

• Etika Penelitian
• Dampak Penelitian
• Dapat melanggar hak privacy
• Dapat mencelakakan manusia
• Dapat mengganggu tradisi, susila, budaya
• Dapat mengganggu masyakarat
• Dapat mengganggu lingkungan hidup
• Dapat mengganggu lingkungan alam
• Dewan Etika
• Di perguruan tinggi ada Dewan Etika
• Penelitian hanya boleh dilakukan setelah
  memperoleh persetujuan Dewan Etika

70
Metoda IlmiahEtika

• Etika Penulisan (Publikasi)
• Mencakup sejumlah larangan
• Larangan plagiat
• Larangan publikasi ganda
• Larangan melanggar privacy orang
• Larangan mengubah nama dan urutan nama peneliti