Motivation and Emotion

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Chapter 12

• Motivation and Emotion

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Defining Motivation, and a Model

• Dynamics of behavior that initiate, sustain,
  direct, and terminate actions
• Model of how motivated activities work
• Need Internal deficiency causes drive
• Drive Energized motivational state (e.g.,
  hunger, thirst activates a response)
• Response Action or series of actions designed to
  attain a goal
• Goal Target of motivated behavior

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Types of Motives

• Incentive Value Goals appeal beyond its ability
  to fill a need
• Primary Motive Innate (inborn) motives based on
  biological needs that must be met to survive
• Stimulus Motive Needs for stimulation and
  information appear to be innate, but not
  necessary for survival
• Secondary Motive Based on learned needs, drives,
  and goals

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Hunger

• Homeostasis Body equilibrium balance
• Hypoglycemia Low blood sugar
• Hypothalamus Brain structure regulates many
  aspects of motivation and emotion, including
  hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior
• Feeding System Area in the hypothalamus that,
  when stimulated, initiates eating
• Satiety System Area in the hypothalamus that
  terminates eating

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Fig. 12.1 Needs and incentives interact to
determine drive strength (above). (a) Moderate
need combined with a high-incentive goal produces
a strong drive. (b) Even when a strong need
exists, drive strength may be moderate if a
goals incentive value is low. It is important to
remember, however, that incentive value lies in
the eye of the beholder.
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Fig. 12.2 In Cannons early study of hunger, a
simple apparatus was used to simultaneously
record hunger pangs and stomach contractions.
(After Cannon, 1934.)
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Fig. 12.3 Location of the hypothalamus in the
human brain.
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More on Eating Behavior (Hungry Yet?)

• Set Point Proportion of body fat that is
  maintained by changes in hunger and eating point
  where weight stays the same when you make no
  effort to gain or lose weight

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Fig. 12.4 This is a cross section through the
middle of the brain (viewed from the front of the
brain). Indicated areas of the hypothalamus are
associated with hunger and the regulation of body
weight.
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The Final Word on Eating Behavior

• Leptin Substance released by fat cells that
  inhibits eating presently being studied for
  possible importance in controlling and losing
  weight
• External Eating Cues External stimuli that tend
  to encourage hunger or elicit eating these cues
  may cause you to eat even if you are stuffed
  (like Homer Simpson, who eats whatever he sees!)

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Behavioral Dieting

• Weight reduction based on changing exercise and
  eating habits and not on temporary
  self-starvation
• Some keys
• Start with a complete physical
• Exercise
• Be committed to weight loss

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Behavioral Dieting (cont.)

• Observe yourself, keep an eating diary, and keep
  a chart of daily progress
• Eat based on hunger, not on taste or learned
  habits that tell you to always clean your plate
• Avoid snacks
• Learn to weaken personal eating cues

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Taste

• Taste Aversion Active dislike for a particular
  food
• VERY difficult to overcome
• Bait Shyness Unwillingness or hesitation by
  animals to eat a particular food

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Eating Disorders Anorexia Nervosa

• Active self-starvation or sustained loss of
  appetite that seems to have psychological origins
• Control issues seem to be involved
• Very difficult to effectively treat
• Affects adolescent females overwhelmingly

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Fig. 12.6 Women with abnormal eating habits were
asked to rate their body shape on a scale similar
to the one you see here. As a group, they chose
ideal figures much thinner than what they thought
their current weights were. (Most women say they
want to be thinner than they currently are, but
to a lesser degree than women with eating
problems.) Notice that the women with eating
problems chose an ideal weight that was even
thinner than what they thought men prefer. This
is not typical of most women. In this study, only
women with eating problems wanted to be thinner
than what they thought men find attractive
(Zellner, Harner, Adler, 1989).
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Eating Disorders Bulimia Nervosa (Binge-Purge
Syndrome)

• Excessive eating usually followed by self-induced
  vomiting and/or taking laxatives
• Difficult to treat
• Prozac approved by FDA to treat bulimia nervosa
• Affects females overwhelmingly

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Causes of Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa

• Anorectics and bulimics have exaggerated fears of
  becoming fat they think they are fat when the
  opposite is true!
• Bulimics are obsessed with food and weight
  anorectics with perfect control
• Anorectics will often be put on a weight-gain
  diet to restore weight

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Anorexia video
https//www.youtube.com/watch?vbO7LAG1K8O0
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Sex Drive

• Estrus Changes in animals that create a desire
  for sex females in heat
• Estrogen A female sex hormone
• Androgens Male hormones
• Non-homeostatic Independent of bodily need states

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Stimulus Drives

• Reflect needs for information, exploration,
  manipulation, and sensory input
• Yerkes-Dodson Law If a task is simple, it is
  best for arousal to be high if it is complex,
  lower levels of arousal provide for the best
  performance
• Arousal Theory Ideal levels of activation occur
  for various activities

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Example of Yerkes-Dodson Law

• The anxiety you experience before an exam is one
  example of how the Yerkes-Dodson Law operates. An
  optimal level of stress can help you focus on the
  test and remember the information that you
  studied too much test anxiety can impair your
  ability to concentrate and make it more difficult
  to remember the correct answers.
• Athletic performance offers another great example
  of the Yerkes-Dodson Law. When a player is poised
  to make an important move, like making a basket
  during a basketball game, an ideal level of
  arousal can sharpen his performance and enable
  him to make the shot. When a player gets too
  stressed out, he might instead "choke" and miss
  the shot.

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• Arousal Activation of the body and nervous
  system
• Sensation Seeking Trait of people who prefer
  high levels of stimulation (e.g., the contestants
  on Eco-Challenge and Fear Factor)

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Fig. 12.7 Monkeys happily open locks that are
placed in their cage. Since no reward is given
for this activity, it provides evidence for the
existence of stimulus needs. (Photo courtesy of
Harry F. Harlow.)
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Fig. 12.8 (a) The general relationship between
arousal and efficiency can be described by an
inverted U curve. The optimal level of arousal or
motivation is higher for a simple task (b) than
for a complex task (c).
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How to Cope With Test Anxiety

• Preparation
• Relaxation
• Rehearsal
• Restructuring thoughts

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Circadian Rhythms

• Cyclical changes in bodily functions and arousal
  levels that vary on a 24 hour schedule
• Preadaptation Gradual matching of sleep-waking
  cycles to a new time schedule before an
  anticipated circadian rhythm change
• E.g. trying to adjust to new time zone to avoid
  jet lag
• Melatonin Hormone produced by pineal gland in
  response to light (production suppressed) and
  dark (production increased)

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Fig. 12.9 Core body temperature is a good
indicator of a persons circadian rhythm. Most
people reach a low point 2 to 3 hours before
their normal waking time. Its no wonder that
both the Chernobyl and three-Mile Island nuclear
power plant accidents occurred around 4 am.
Rapid travel to a different time zone, shift
work, depression, and illness can throw sleep and
waking patterns out of synchronization with the
bodys core rhythm. Mismatches of this kind are
very disruptive (Hauri Linde, 1990).
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Jet Lag

• Disturbed body rhythms caused by rapid travel
  east or west
• Major time shifts (5 hours or more) can cause
  very slow adaptation
• Direction of travel affects adaptation, and thus,
  severity of jet lag
• MUCH easier to go east to west than west to east
• Preadaptation Gradual matching of sleep-waking
  cycles to a new time schedule

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Fig. 12.10 Time required to adjust to air travel
across six time zones. The average time to
resynchronize was shorter for westbound travel
than for eastbound flights. (Data from Beljan et
al., 1972 cited by Moore-Ede et al., 1982).
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Learned Motives

• Opponent Process Theory Strong emotions tend to
  be followed by an opposite state strength of
  both emotional states over time
• Social Motives Acquired by growing up in a
  particular society or culture
• Need for Achievement Desire to meet some
  internal standard of excellence
• Need for Power Desire to have social impact or
  control over others

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Abraham Maslow and Needs

• Hierarchy of Human Needs Maslows ordering of
  needs based on presumed strength or potency some
  needs are more powerful than others and thus will
  influence your behavior to a greater degree
• Basic Needs First four levels of needs in
  Maslows hierarchy
• Lower needs tend to be more potent (prepotent)
  than higher needs
• Growth Needs Higher-level needs associated with
  self-actualization
• Meta-Needs Needs associated with impulses for
  self-actualization

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Fig. 12.12 Maslow believed that lower needs in
the hierarchy are dominant. Basic needs must be
satisfied before growth motives are fully
expressed. Desires for self-actualization are
reflected in various meta-needs.
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Types of Motivation

• Intrinsic Motivation Motivation coming from
  within, not from external rewards based on
  personal enjoyment of a task
• Extrinsic Motivation Based on obvious external
  rewards, obligations, or similar factors

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Emotions

• State characterized by physiological arousal and
  changes in facial expressions, gestures, posture,
  and subjective feelings
• Adaptive Behaviors Aid our attempts to survive
  and adjust to changing conditions
• Physiological Changes Include heart rate, blood
  pressure, perspiration, and other bodily responses

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More Emotions

• Adrenaline Hormone produced by adrenal glands
  that arouses the body
• Emotional Expression Outward signs of what a
  person is feeling
• Emotional Feelings Private emotional experience

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Primary Emotions and Mood

• Eight primary emotions (Plutchik, 2001)
• Fear
• Surprise
• Sadness
• Disgust

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Primary Emotions and Mood (cont.)

• Anger
• Anticipation
• Joy
• Trust
• Mood Low-intensity, long-lasting emotional state

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Fig. 12.13 Primary and mixed emotions. In Robert
Plutchiks model there are eight primary
emotions, as listed in the inner areas. Adjacent
emotions may combine to give the emotions listed
around the perimeter. Mixtures involving more
widely separated emotions are also possible. For
example, fear plus anticipation produces anxiety.
(Adapted from Plutchik, 2001.)
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Brain and Emotion

• Amygdala Part of limbic system that produces
  fear responses
• Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) Neural system
  that connects brain with internal organs and
  glands
• Sympathetic Branch Part of ANS that activates
  body for emergency action
• Parasympathetic Branch Part of ANS that quiets
  body and conserves energy
• Parasympathetic Rebound Overreaction to intense
  emotion

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Fig. 12.15 An amygdala can be found buried within
the temporal lobes on each side of the brain.
The amygdala appears to provide quick and
dirty processing of emotional stimuli that
allows us to act involuntarily to danger.
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Lie Detectors

• Polygraph Device that records heart rate, blood
  pressure, respiration, and galvanic skin response
  (GSR) lie detector
• GSR Measures sweating
• Irrelevant Questions Neutral, nonthreatening,
  non-emotional questions in a polygraph test
• Relevant Questions Questions to which only
  someone guilty should react
• Control Questions Questions that almost always
  provoke anxiety in a polygraph (e.g. Have you
  ever taken any office supplies?)

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Fig. 12.17 A typical polygraph includes devices
for measuring heart rate, blood pressure,
respiration, and galvanic skin response. Pens
mounted on the top of the machine make a record
of bodily responses on a moving strip of paper.
(right) Changes in the area marked by the arrow
indicate emotional arousal. If such responses
appear when a person answers a question, he or
she may be lying, but other causes of arousal are
also possible.
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Body Language (Kinesics)

• Study of communication through body movement,
  posture, gestures, and facial expressions
• Emotional Tone Underlying emotional state
• Facial Blends Mix of two or more basic
  expressions

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Three Types of Facial Expressions

• Pleasantness-Unpleasantness Degree to which a
  person is experiencing pleasure or displeasure
• Attention-Rejection Degree of attention given to
  a person or object
• Activation Degree of arousal a person is
  experiencing

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Fig. 12.18 When shown groups of simplified faces
(without labels) the angry and scheming faces
jumped out at people faster than sad, happy, or
neutral faces. An ability to rapidly detect
threatening expressions probably helped our
ancestors survive (adapted from Tipples, Atkinson
Young, 2002).
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Detecting Lies

• Illustrators Gestures people use to illustrate
  what they are saying
• Emblems Gestures that have widely understood
  meanings within a particular culture

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Theories of Emotion

• James-Lange Theory Emotional feelings follow
  bodily arousal and come from awareness of such
  arousal
• Cannon-Bard Theory The thalamus (in brain)
  causes emotional feelings and bodily arousal at
  the same time
• Schachters Cognitive Theory Emotions occur when
  a label is applied to general physical arousal
• Attribution Mental process of assigning causes
  to events attributing arousal to a certain
  source
• Facial Feedback Hypothesis Sensations from
  facial expressions and becoming aware of them is
  what leads to the emotion someone feels

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Fig. 12.21 Theories of emotion.
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A Modern View of Emotion

• Emotional Appraisal Evaluating personal meaning
  of a stimulus
• Emotional Intelligence Combination of skills,
  including empathy, self-control, and
  self-awareness includes
• Self-awareness
• Empathy
• Managing, understanding, and using emotions

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Fig. 12.23 A contemporary model of emotion.
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Nature of Love

• Sternbergs Triangular Theory of Love Love is
  made up of intimacy, passion, and commitment
• Intimacy Affection, sharing, support, and
  communication in a relationship
• Passion High levels of physical arousal in a
  relationship, especially sexual
• Commitment Decision to love and stay with
  another person
• Infatuation Passion without commitment or
  intimacy

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Types of Love

• Liking Intimacy without passion or commitment
• Romantic Love Intimacy plus passion
• Fatuous Love Passion with commitment, but
  lacking intimacy
• Infatuation Passion without commitment or
  intimacy

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More Types of Love

• Companionate Love Intimacy and commitment
  without passion
• Empty Love Commitment without intimacy or
  passion
• Consummate Love Passion, intimacy, and commitment

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Fig. 12.24 Sternbergs triangular theory of love.