Chapter 9: Motivation and Emotion

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Chapter 9 Motivation and Emotion
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Motivational Theories and Concepts

• Motives needs, wants, desires leading to
  goal-directed behavior
• Push vs. Pull
• Drive theories seeking homeostasis a drive is
  an internal state of tension that motivates an
  organism to engage in activities that should
  reduce this tension (homeostasis)
• Incentive theories regulation by external
  stimuli ice cream, an A, money, etc.
• Evolutionary theories maximizing reproductive
  success - They explain affiliation, achievement,
  dominance, aggression, and sex drive in terms of
  adaptive value.

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Figure 9.2 The diversity of human motives
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Hunger

• Why do we eat?
• Pleasure
• Energy
• Nutrients (technically not for energy, but for
  effective functioning of the body)
• 9 of 20 amino acids and 15 vitamins and minerals
  used by the body must come from food.

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The Motivation of Hunger and Eating Biological
Factors

• Lateral Hypothalamus lesions prevent feeding
  behavior. Involved in the release of insulin
• Medial Hypothalamus lesions produce overeating
  weight gain by increased freq of meals (people w/
  tumors reported to gain 22 lbs. month)
• Paraventricular Nucleus of the hypothalamus
  lesions produce overeating by increased meal size

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The Motivation of Hunger and Eating Biological
Factors

• Glucose and digestive regulation
• Glucostatic theory - when blood sugar goes down,
  hunger goes up. Glucostatic theory proposed that
  fluctuations in blood glucose level are monitored
  in the brain by glucostats neurons sensitive to
  glucose in the surrounding fluid.

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The Motivation of Hunger and Eating Biological
Factors

• Hormonal regulation
• Leptin - released from fat cells into the
  bloodstream. Leptin is believed to signal the
  hypothalamus about fat stores in the body,
  causing decreases in hunger when fat stores are
  high.
• Insulin - secreted by the pancreas, must be
  present for cells to use blood glucose. Increases
  in insulin increase hunger, and the mere sight
  and smell of food has been shown to increase
  insulin

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The Motivation of Hunger and Eating
Environmental Factors

• Food availability and related cues
• Palatability - people eat more when the food
  available tastes good to them
• Quantity available - people eat more when more
  food is put in front of them
• Variety - people eat more when there is a greater
  variety of foods available to them.
• Learned preferences and habits
• Classical conditioning
• Observational learning
• Stress
• Link between heightened arousal/negative emotion
  and overeating - chronic dieters are more likely
  to respond to stress with eating

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The Human Sexual Response

• Masters and Johnson 1966
• Stages
• Excitement - Muscle tension, respiration rate,
  heart rate and blood pressure increase.
  Vasocongestion engorgement of blood vessels
  occurs in the genitals.
• Plateau - physiological arousal continues to
  build, but at a slower pace
• Orgasm - The orgasm phase occurs when sexual
  arousal reaches its peak intensity and is
  discharged in a series of muscular contractions
  that pulsate through the pelvic area
• Resolution - is characterized by subsiding
  physiological arousal

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Men experience a refractory period after orgasm,
when they are largely unresponsive to further
stimulation. This may last from a few minutes to
a few hours and increases with age. Women can
be multiorgasmic. On the other hand, they are
more likely to engage in intercourse without
experiencing an orgasm.
Figure 9.4 The human sexual response cycle
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Horomones

• Testosterone Mediates males sexual interest.
  Castrated males (rodents) stop mounting behavior.
  Injections of testosterone restores sexual
  behavior in castrated animals.
• Progesterone ovarectomized females (rodents)
  stop showing proceptive and receptive behavior.
  Progesterone injections restore this behavior.

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Evolutionary Analyses ofHuman Sexual Motivation

• Parental investment theory
• Gender differences in sexual activity - If males
  are to maximize their number of fertile
  offspring, they might do so by mating with as
  many females as possible. Males think more about
  sex, and are more motivated to seek sex with many
  different partners, than are females
• Females, on the other hand, must carry and then
  feed their offspring, who will not survive
  without considerable investment on her part.
  This difference in required investment has been
  used to explain other gender differences in
  sexual activity and preferences.
• Gender differences in mate preferences
• - Fertility are characteristics like youth and
  physical features that males have come to regard
  as beautiful because they predict fertility.
• - Females should generally prefer a mate older
  than themselves and with characteristics
  predictive of future success, such as
  intelligence, ambition, and diligence.
  (resources)

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Figure 9.6 Parental investment theory and mating
preferences
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Figure 9.7 The gender gap in how much people
think about sex
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The Mystery of Sexual Orientation

• Heterosexual Bisexual Homosexual
• a persons preference for emotional and sexual
  relationships with individuals of the same sex -
  A continuum?
• Theories explaining homosexuality
• Environmental
• Biological
• Interactionist

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The Mystery of Sexual Orientation

• Theories explaining homosexuality
• Environmental - Freud held that a person must
  identify with the same sexed parent, or
  homosexuality results. Behaviorists assert that
  homosexuality is learned through conditioning.
  Research has failed to support either theory.
• Eckert (1986)
• 55 pairs monozygotic twins reared apart
• 5 males
• 0 females

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The Mystery of Sexual Orientation
Biological - most men and women with homosexual
orientations can trace their leanings back to
early childhood, suggesting a biological
basis. Interactionist - genes and prenatal
hormones shape a childs temperament, which
initiates a chain of events that ultimately
shapes sexual orientation.
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Figure 9.10 How common is homosexuality?
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Achievement Motivation

• Achievement motive need to excel
• Work harder and more persistently
• Delay gratification
• Pursue competitive careers
• Situational influences on achievement motives -
  the pursuit of achievement can be influenced by a
  fear of failure, so that the motive to avoid
  failure stimulates achievement.

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The Elements of Emotional Experience

• Cognitive component
• Subjective conscious experience - The cognitive
  appraisal of an event is an important element in
  emotional experience.
• Positive psychology - in the past research
  focused primarily on negative emotions,
  consistent with the bias in the field of
  psychology toward studying pathology, weakness,
  and suffering.
• In recent years, however, a group of
  psychologists have advocated for positive
  psychology. As a result, there is increasing
  research on contentment, well-being, human
  strength, and positive emotion.
• Physiological component
• Bodily (autonomic) arousal SN PSN
• Neural circuits Amygdala, Hippocampus,
  Prefrotnal Cortex
• Behavioral component
• Characteristic overt expressions
• Facial feedback hypothesis

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Figure 9.16 Cross-cultural comparisons of
peoples ability to recognize emotions from
facial expressions
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Theories of Emotion

• James-Lange
• Feel afraid because pulse is racing
• Cannon-Bard
• Thalamus sends signals simultaneously to the
  cortex and the autonomic nervous system
• Schacters Two-Factor Theory
• Look to external cues to decide what to feel
• Evolutionary Theories
• Innate reactions with little cognitive
  interpretation

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Figure 9.18 Primary emotions